Recently Published Bulletin Reports
Sabancaya (Peru) Explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity persist during November 2022-April 2023
Sheveluch (Russia) Significant explosions destroyed part of the lava-dome complex during April 2023
Bezymianny (Russia) Explosions, ash plumes, lava flows, and avalanches during November 2022-April 2023
Chikurachki (Russia) New explosive eruption during late January-early February 2023
Marapi (Indonesia) New explosive eruption with ash emissions during January-March 2023
Kikai (Japan) Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023
Lewotolok (Indonesia) Strombolian eruption continues through April 2023 with intermittent ash plumes
Barren Island (India) Thermal activity during December 2022-March 2023
Villarrica (Chile) Nighttime crater incandescence, ash emissions, and seismicity during October 2022-March 2023
Fuego (Guatemala) Daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, avalanches, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023
Santa Maria (Guatemala) Active lava flows, explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023
Reventador (Ecuador) Daily explosions, gas-and-ash emissions, crater incandescence, and block avalanches during December 2022-March 2023
Sabancaya
Peru
15.787°S, 71.857°W; summit elev. 5960 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity persist during November 2022-April 2023
Sabancaya is located in Peru, NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca. Eruptions date back to 1750 and have been characterized by explosions, phreatic activity, ash plumes, and ashfall. The current eruption period began in November 2016 and has more recently consisted of daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report updates activity during November 2022 through April 2023 using information from Instituto Geophysico del Peru (IGP) that use weekly activity reports and various satellite data.
Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were reported by the MIROVA project during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 119). There were few short gaps in thermal activity during mid-December 2022, late December-to-early January 2023, late January to mid-February, and late February. According to data recorded by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, there were a total of eight thermal hotspots: three in November 2022, three in February 2023, one in March, and one in April. On clear weather days, some of this thermal anomaly was visible in infrared satellite imagery showing the active lava dome in the summit crater (figure 120). Almost daily moderate-to-strong sulfur dioxide plumes were recorded during the reporting period by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite (figure 121). Many of these plumes exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in multiple directions.
IGP reported that moderate activity during November and December 2022 continued; during November, an average number of explosions were reported each week: 30, 33, 36, and 35, and during December, it was 32, 40, 47, 52, and 67. Gas-and-ash plumes in November rose 3-3.5 km above the summit and drifted E, NE, SE, S, N, W, and SW. During December the gas-and-ash plumes rose 2-4 km above the summit and drifted in different directions. There were 1,259 volcanic earthquakes recorded during November and 1,693 during December. Seismicity also included volcano-tectonic-type events that indicate rock fracturing events. Slight inflation was observed in the N part of the volcano near Hualca Hualca (4 km N). Thermal activity was frequently reported in the crater at the active lava dome (figure 120).
Explosive activity continued during January and February 2023. The average number of explosions were reported each week during January (51, 50, 60, and 59) and February (43, 54, 51, and 50). Gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.6-2.9 km above the summit and drifted NW, SW, and W during January and rose 1.4-2.8 above the summit and drifted W, SW, E, SE, N, S, NW, and NE during February. IGP also detected 1,881 volcanic earthquakes during January and 1,661 during February. VT-type earthquakes were also reported. Minor inflation persisted near Hualca Hualca. Satellite imagery showed continuous thermal activity in the crater at the lava dome (figure 120).
During March, the average number of explosions each week was 46, 48, 31, 35, and 22 and during April, it was 29, 41, 31, and 27. Accompanying gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.7-2.6 km above the summit crater and drifted W, SW, NW, S, and SE during March. According to a Buenos Aires Volcano Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) notice, on 22 March at 1800 through 23 March an ash plume rose to 7 km altitude and drifted NW. By 0430 an ash plume rose to 7.6 km altitude and drifted W. On 24 and 26 March continuous ash emissions rose to 7.3 km altitude and drifted SW and on 28 March ash emissions rose to 7.6 km altitude. During April, gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.6-2.5 km above the summit and drifted W, SW, S, NW, NE, and E. Frequent volcanic earthquakes were recorded, with 1,828 in March and 1,077 in April, in addition to VT-type events. Thermal activity continued to be reported in the summit crater at the lava dome (figure 120).
Geologic Background. Sabancaya, located in the saddle NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca volcanoes, is the youngest of these volcanic centers and the only one to have erupted in historical time. The oldest of the three, Nevado Hualca Hualca, is of probable late-Pliocene to early Pleistocene age. The name Sabancaya (meaning "tongue of fire" in the Quechua language) first appeared in records in 1595 CE, suggesting activity prior to that date. Holocene activity has consisted of Plinian eruptions followed by emission of voluminous andesitic and dacitic lava flows, which form an extensive apron around the volcano on all sides but the south. Records of historical eruptions date back to 1750.
Information Contacts: Instituto Geofisico del Peru (IGP), Centro Vulcanológico Nacional (CENVUL), Calle Badajoz N° 169 Urb. Mayorazgo IV Etapa, Ate, Lima 15012, Perú (URL: https://www.igp.gob.pe/servicios/centro-vulcanologico-nacional/inicio); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard MD 20771, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).
Sheveluch
Russia
56.653°N, 161.36°E; summit elev. 3283 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Significant explosions destroyed part of the lava-dome complex during April 2023
Sheveluch (also spelled Shiveluch) in Kamchatka, has had at least 60 large eruptions during the last 10,000 years. The summit is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide caldera that is breached to the S, and many lava domes occur on the outer flanks. The lava dome complex was constructed within the large open caldera. Frequent collapses of the dome complex have produced debris avalanches; the resulting deposits cover much of the caldera floor. A major south-flank collapse during a 1964 Plinian explosion produced a scarp in which a “Young Sheveluch” dome began to form in 1980. Repeated episodes of dome formation and destruction since then have produced major and minor ash plumes, pyroclastic flows, block-and-ash flows, and “whaleback domes” of spine-like extrusions in 1993 and 2020 (BGVN 45:11). The current eruption period began in August 1999 and has more recently consisted of lava dome growth, explosions, ash plumes, and avalanches (BGVN 48:01). This report covers a significant explosive eruption during early-to-mid-April 2023 that generated a 20 km altitude ash plume, produced a strong sulfur dioxide plume, and destroyed part of the lava-dome complex; activity described during January through April 2023 use information primarily from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and various satellite data.
Satellite data. Activity during the majority of this reporting period was characterized by continued lava dome growth, strong fumarole activity, explosions, and hot avalanches. According to the MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, 140 hotspots were detected through the reporting period, with 33 recorded in January 2023, 29 in February, 44 in March, and 34 in April. Frequent strong thermal activity was recorded during January 2023 through April, according to the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph and resulted from the continuously growing lava dome (figure 94). A slightly stronger pulse in thermal activity was detected in early-to-mid-April, which represented the significant eruption that destroyed part of the lava-dome complex. Thermal anomalies were also visible in infrared satellite imagery at the summit crater (figure 95).
During January 2023 KVERT reported continued growth of the lava dome, accompanied by strong fumarolic activity, incandescence from the lava dome, explosions, ash plumes, and avalanches. Satellite data showed a daily thermal anomaly over the volcano. Video data showed ash plumes associated with collapses at the dome that generated avalanches that in turn produced ash plumes rising to 3.5 km altitude and drifting 40 km W on 4 January and rising to 7-7.5 km altitude and drifting 15 km SW on 5 January. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash that was associated with avalanches rose to 5-6 km altitude and extended 52-92 km W on 7 January. Explosions that same day produced ash plumes that rose to 7-7.5 km altitude and drifted 10 km W. According to a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) issued at 1344 on 19 January, explosions produced an ash cloud that was 15 x 25 km in size and rose to 9.6-10 km altitude, drifting 21-25 km W; as a result, the Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). Another VONA issued at 1635 reported that no more ash plumes were observed, and the ACC was lowered to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). On 22 January an ash plume from collapses and avalanches rose to 5 km altitude and drifted 25 km NE and SW; ash plumes associated with collapses extended 70 km NE on 27 and 31 January.
Lava dome growth, fumarolic activity, dome incandescence, and occasional explosions and avalanches continued during February and March. A daily thermal anomaly was visible in satellite data. Explosions on 1 February generated ash plumes that rose to 6.3-6.5 km altitude and extended 15 km NE. Video data showed an ash cloud from avalanches rising to 5.5 km altitude and drifting 5 km SE on 2 February. Satellite data showed gas-and-steam plumes containing some ash rose to 5-5.5 km altitude and drifted 68-110 km ENE and NE on 6 February, to 4.5-5 km altitude and drifted 35 km WNW on 22 February, and to 3.7-4 km altitude and drifted 47 km NE on 28 February. Scientists from the Kamchatka Volcanological Station (KVS) went on a field excursion on 25 February to document the growing lava dome, and although it was cloudy most of the day, nighttime incandescence was visible. Satellite data showed an ash plume extending up to 118 km E during 4-5 March. Video data from 1150 showed an ash cloud from avalanches rose to 3.7-5.5 km altitude and drifted 5-10 km ENE and E on 5 March. On 11 March an ash plume drifted 62 km E. On 27 March ash plumes rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted 100 km E. Avalanches and constant incandescence at the lava dome was focused on the E and NE slopes on 28 March. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash rose to 3.5 km altitude and moved 40 km E on 29 March. Ash plumes on 30 March rose to 3.5-3.7 km altitude and drifted 70 km NE.
Similar activity continued during April, with lava dome growth, strong fumarolic activity, incandescence in the dome, occasional explosions, and avalanches. A thermal anomaly persisted throughout the month. During 1-4 April weak ash plumes rose to 2.5-3 km altitude and extended 13-65 km SE and E.
Activity during 11 April 2023. The Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS) reported a significant increase in seismicity around 0054 on 11 April, as reported by strong explosions detected on 11 April beginning at 0110 that sent ash plumes up to 7-10 km altitude and extended 100-435 km W, WNW, NNW, WSW, and SW. According to a Tokyo VAAC report the ash plume rose to 15.8 km altitude. By 0158 the plume extended over a 75 x 100 km area. According to an IVS FEB RAS report, the eruptive column was not vertical: the initial plume at 0120 on 11 April deviated to the NNE, at 0000 on 12 April, it drifted NW, and by 1900 it drifted SW. KVS reported that significant pulses of activity occurred at around 0200, 0320, and then a stronger phase around 0600. Levin Dmitry took a video from near Békés (3 km away) at around 0600 showing a rising plume; he also reported that a pyroclastic flow traveled across the road behind him as he left the area. According to IVS FEB RAS, the pyroclastic flow traveled several kilometers SSE, stopping a few hundred meters from a bridge on the road between Klyuchi and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
Ashfall was first observed in Klyuchi (45 km SW) at 0630, and a large, black ash plume blocked light by 0700. At 0729 KVERT issued a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) raising the Aviation Color Code to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). It also stated that a large ash plume had risen to 10 km altitude and drifted 100 km W. Near-constant lightning strikes were reported in the plume and sounds like thunderclaps were heard until about 1000. According to IVS FEB RAS the cloud was 200 km long and 76 km wide by 0830, and was spreading W at altitudes of 6-12 km. In the Klyuchi Village, the layer of both ash and snow reached 8.5 cm (figure 96); ashfall was also reported in Kozyrevsk (112 km SW) at 0930, Mayskoye, Anavgay, Atlasovo, Lazo, and Esso. Residents in Klyuchi reported continued darkness and ashfall at 1100. In some areas, ashfall was 6 cm deep and some residents reported dirty water coming from their plumbing. According to IVS FEB RAS, an ash cloud at 1150 rose to 5-20 km altitude and was 400 km long and 250 km wide, extending W. A VONA issued at 1155 reported that ash had risen to 10 km and drifted 340 km NNW and 240 km WSW. According to Simon Carn (Michigan Technological University), about 0.2 Tg of sulfur dioxide in the plume was measured in a satellite image from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite acquired at 1343 that covered an area of about 189,000 km2 (figure 97). Satellite data at 1748 showed an ash plume that rose to 8 km altitude and drifted 430 km WSW and S, according to a VONA.
Activity during 12-15 April 2023. On 12 April at 0730 satellite images showed ash plumes rose to 7-8 km altitude and extended 600 km SW, 1,050 km ESE, and 1,300-3,000 km E. By 1710 that day, the explosions weakened. According to news sources, the ash-and-gas plumes drifted E toward the Aleutian Islands and reached the Gulf of Alaska by 13 April, causing flight disruptions. More than 100 flights involving Alaska airspace were cancelled due to the plume. Satellite data showed ash plumes rising to 4-5.5 km altitude and drifted 400-415 km SE and ESE on 13 April. KVS volcanologists observed the pyroclastic flow deposits and noted that steam rose from downed, smoldering trees. They also noted that the deposits were thin with very few large fragments, which differed from previous flows. The ash clouds traveled across the Pacific Ocean. Flight cancellations were also reported in NW Canada (British Columbia) during 13-14 April. During 14-15 April ash plumes rose to 6 km altitude and drifted 700 km NW.
Alaskan flight schedules were mostly back to normal by 15 April, with only minor delays and far less cancellations; a few cancellations continued to be reported in Canada. Clear weather on 15 April showed that most of the previous lava-dome complex was gone and a new crater roughly 1 km in diameter was observed (figure 98); gas-and-steam emissions were rising from this crater. Evidence suggested that there had been a directed blast to the SE, and pyroclastic flows traveled more than 20 km. An ash plume rose to 4.5-5.2 km altitude and drifted 93-870 km NW on 15 April.
Activity during 16-30 April 2023. Resuspended ash was lifted by the wind from the slopes and rose to 4 km altitude and drifted 224 km NW on 17 April. KVERT reported a plume of resuspended ash from the activity during 10-13 April on 19 April that rose to 3.5-4 km altitude and drifted 146-204 km WNW. During 21-22 April a plume stretched over the Scandinavian Peninsula. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash rose to 3-3.5 km altitude and drifted 60 km SE on 30 April. A possible new lava dome was visible on the W slope of the volcano on 29-30 April (figure 99); satellite data showed two thermal anomalies, a bright one over the existing lava dome and a weaker one over the possible new one.
References. Girina, O., Loupian, E., Horvath, A., Melnikov, D., Manevich, A., Nuzhdaev, A., Bril, A., Ozerov, A., Kramareva, L., Sorokin, A., 2023, Analysis of the development of the paroxysmal eruption of Sheveluch volcano on April 10–13, 2023, based on data from various satellite systems, ??????????? ???????? ??? ?? ???????, 20(2).
Geologic Background. The high, isolated massif of Sheveluch volcano (also spelled Shiveluch) rises above the lowlands NNE of the Kliuchevskaya volcano group. The 1,300 km3 andesitic volcano is one of Kamchatka's largest and most active volcanic structures, with at least 60 large eruptions during the Holocene. The summit of roughly 65,000-year-old Stary Shiveluch is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide late-Pleistocene caldera breached to the south. Many lava domes occur on its outer flanks. The Molodoy Shiveluch lava dome complex was constructed during the Holocene within the large open caldera; Holocene lava dome extrusion also took place on the flanks of Stary Shiveluch. Widespread tephra layers from these eruptions have provided valuable time markers for dating volcanic events in Kamchatka. Frequent collapses of dome complexes, most recently in 1964, have produced debris avalanches whose deposits cover much of the floor of the breached caldera.
Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS), 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/eng/); Kamchatka Volcanological Station, Kamchatka Branch of Geophysical Survey, (KB GS RAS), Klyuchi, Kamchatka Krai, Russia (URL: http://volkstat.ru/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); Kam 24 News Agency, 683032, Kamchatka Territory, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Vysotnaya St., 2A (URL: https://kam24.ru/news/main/20230411/96657.html#.Cj5Jrky6.dpuf); Simon Carn, Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931, USA (URL: http://www.volcarno.com/, Twitter: @simoncarn).
Bezymianny
Russia
55.972°N, 160.595°E; summit elev. 2882 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Explosions, ash plumes, lava flows, and avalanches during November 2022-April 2023
Bezymianny is located on the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia as part of the Klyuchevskoy volcano group. Historic eruptions began in 1955 and have been characterized by dome growth, explosions, pyroclastic flows, ash plumes, and ashfall. During the 1955-56 eruption a large open crater was formed by collapse of the summit and an associated lateral blast. Subsequent episodic but ongoing lava-dome growth, accompanied by intermittent explosive activity and pyroclastic flows, has largely filled the 1956 crater. The current eruption period began in December 2016 and more recent activity has consisted of strong explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers activity during November 2022 through April 2023, based on weekly and daily reports from the Kamchatka Volcano Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.
Activity during November and March 2023 was relatively low and mostly consisted of gas-and-steam emissions, occasional small collapses that generated avalanches along the lava dome slopes, and a persistent thermal anomaly over the volcano that was observed in satellite data on clear weather days. According to the Tokyo VAAC and KVERT, an explosion produced an ash plume that rose to 6 km altitude and drifted 25 km NE at 1825 on 29 March.
Gas-and-steam emissions, collapses generating avalanches, and thermal activity continued during April. According to two Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) issued on 2 and 6 April (local time) ash plumes rose to 3 km and 3.5-3.8 km altitude and drifted 35 km E and 140 km E, respectively. Satellite data from KVERT showed weak ash plumes extending up to 550 km E on 2 and 5-6 April.
A VONA issued at 0843 on 7 April described an ash plume that rose to 4.5-5 km altitude and drifted 250 km ESE. Later that day at 1326 satellite data showed an ash plume that rose to 5.5-6 km altitude and drifted 150 km ESE. A satellite image from 1600 showed an ash plume extending as far as 230 km ESE; KVERT noted that ash emissions were intensifying, likely due to avalanches from the growing lava dome. The Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). At 1520 satellite data showed an ash plume rising to 5-5.5 km altitude and drifting 230 km ESE. That same day, Kamchatka Volcanological Station (KVS) volcanologists traveled to Ambon to collect ash; they reported that a notable eruption began at 1730, and within 20 minutes a large ash plume rose to 10 km altitude and drifted NW. KVERT reported that the strong explosive phase began at 1738. Video and satellite data taken at 1738 showed an ash plume that rose to 10-12 km altitude and drifted up to 2,800 km SE and E. Explosions were clearly audible 20 km away for 90 minutes, according to KVS. Significant amounts of ash fell at the Apakhonchich station, which turned the snow gray; ash continued to fall until the morning of 8 April. In a VONA issued at 0906 on 8 April, KVERT stated that the explosive eruption had ended; ash plumes had drifted 2,000 km E. The ACC was lowered to Orange (the third highest level on a four-color scale). The KVS team saw a lava flow on the active dome once the conditions were clear that same day (figure 53). On 20 April lava dome extrusion was reported; lava flows were noted on the flanks of the dome, and according to KVERT satellite data, a thermal anomaly was observed in the area. The ACC was lowered to Yellow (the second lowest on a four-color scale).
Satellite data showed an increase in thermal activity beginning in early April 2023. A total of 31 thermal hotspots were detected by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm on 4, 5, 7, and 12 April 2023. The elevated thermal activity resulted from an increase in explosive activity and the start of an active lava flow. The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) volcano hotspot detection system based on the analysis of MODIS data also showed a pulse in thermal activity during the same time (figure 54). Infrared satellite imagery captured a continuous thermal anomaly at the summit crater, often accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions (figure 55). On 4 April 2023 an active lava flow was observed descending the SE flank.
Geologic Background. The modern Bezymianny, much smaller than its massive neighbors Kamen and Kliuchevskoi on the Kamchatka Peninsula, was formed about 4,700 years ago over a late-Pleistocene lava-dome complex and an edifice built about 11,000-7,000 years ago. Three periods of intensified activity have occurred during the past 3,000 years. The latest period, which was preceded by a 1,000-year quiescence, began with the dramatic 1955-56 eruption. This eruption, similar to that of St. Helens in 1980, produced a large open crater that was formed by collapse of the summit and an associated lateral blast. Subsequent episodic but ongoing lava-dome growth, accompanied by intermittent explosive activity and pyroclastic flows, has largely filled the 1956 crater.
Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Kamchatka Volcanological Station, Kamchatka Branch of Geophysical Survey, (KB GS RAS), Klyuchi, Kamchatka Krai, Russia (URL: http://volkstat.ru/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).
Chikurachki
Russia
50.324°N, 155.461°E; summit elev. 1781 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
New explosive eruption during late January-early February 2023
Chikurachki, located on Paramushir Island in the northern Kuriles, has had Plinian eruptions during the Holocene. Lava flows have reached the sea and formed capes on the NW coast; several young lava flows are also present on the E flank beneath a scoria deposit. Reported eruptions date back to 1690, with the most recent eruption period occurring during January through October 2022, characterized by occasional explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers a new eruptive period during January through February 2023 that consisted of ash explosions and ash plumes, based on information from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.
According to reports from KVERT, an explosive eruption began around 0630 on 29 January. Explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 3-3.5 km altitude and drifted 6-75 km SE and E, based on satellite data. As a result, the Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). At 1406 and 1720 ash plumes were identified in satellite images that rose to 4.3 km altitude and extended 70 km E. By 2320 the ash plume had dissipated. A thermal anomaly was visible at the volcano on 31 January, according to a satellite image, and an ash plume was observed drifting 66 km NE.
Occasional explosions and ash plumes continued during early February. At 0850 on 1 February an ash plume rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted 35 km NE. Satellite data showed an ash plume that rose to 3.2-3.5 km altitude and drifted 50 km NE at 1222 later that day (figure 22). A thermal anomaly was detected over the volcano during 5-6 February and ash plumes drifted as far as 125 km SE, E, and NE. Explosive events were reported at 0330 on 6 February that produced ash plumes rising to 4-4.5 km altitude and drifting 72-90 km N, NE, and ENE. KVERT noted that the last gas-and steam plume that contained some ash was observed on 8 February and drifted 55 km NE before the explosive eruption ended. The ACC was lowered to Yellow and then Green (the lowest level on a four-color scale) on 18 February.
Geologic Background. Chikurachki, the highest volcano on Paramushir Island in the northern Kuriles, is a relatively small cone constructed on a high Pleistocene edifice. Oxidized basaltic-to-andesitic scoria deposits covering the upper part of the young cone give it a distinctive red color. Frequent basaltic Plinian eruptions have occurred during the Holocene. Lava flows have reached the sea and formed capes on the NW coast; several young lava flows are also present on the E flank beneath a scoria deposit. The Tatarinov group of six volcanic centers is located immediately to the south, and the Lomonosov cinder cone group, the source of an early Holocene lava flow that reached the saddle between it and Fuss Peak to the west, lies at the southern end of the N-S-trending Chikurachki-Tatarinov complex. In contrast to the frequently active Chikurachki, the Tatarinov centers are extensively modified by erosion and have a more complex structure. Tephrochronology gives evidence of an eruption around 1690 CE from Tatarinov, although its southern cone contains a sulfur-encrusted crater with fumaroles that were active along the margin of a crater lake until 1959.
Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far East Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).
Marapi
Indonesia
0.38°S, 100.474°E; summit elev. 2885 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
New explosive eruption with ash emissions during January-March 2023
Marapi in Sumatra, Indonesia, is a massive stratovolcano that rises 2 km above the Bukittinggi Plain in the Padang Highlands. A broad summit contains multiple partially overlapping summit craters constructed within the small 1.4-km-wide Bancah caldera and trending ENE-WSW, with volcanism migrating to the west. Since the end of the 18th century, more than 50 eruptions, typically characterized by small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been recorded. The previous eruption consisted of two explosions during April-May 2018, which caused ashfall to the SE (BGVN 43:06). This report covers a new eruption during January-March 2023, which included explosive events and ash emissions, as reported by Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM) and MAGMA Indonesia.
According to a press release issued by PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia on 26 December, primary volcanic activity at Marapi consisted of white gas-and-steam puffs that rose 500-100 m above the summit during April-December 2022. On 25 December 2022 there was an increase in the number of deep volcanic earthquakes and summit inflation. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 80-158 m above the summit on 5 January. An explosive eruption began at 0611 on 7 January 2023, which generated white gas-and-steam emissions and gray ash emissions mixed with ejecta that rose 300 m above the summit and drifted SE (figure 10). According to ground observations, white-to-gray ash clouds during 0944-1034 rose 200-250 m above the summit and drifted SE and around 1451 emissions rose 200 m above the summit. Seismic signals indicated that eruptive events also occurred at 1135, 1144, 1230, 1715, and 1821, but no ash emissions were visually observed. On 8 January white-and-gray emissions rose 150-250 m above the summit that drifted E and SE. Seismic signals indicated eruptive events at 0447, 1038, and 1145, but again no ash emissions were visually observed on 8 January. White-to-gray ash plumes continued to be observed on clear weather days during 9-15, 18-21, 25, and 29-30 January, rising 100-1,000 m above the summit and drifted generally NE, SE, N, and E, based on ground observations (figure 11).
White-and-gray and brown emissions persisted in February, rising 50-500 m above the summit and drifting E, S, SW, N, NE, and W, though weather sometimes prevented clear views of the summit. An eruption at 1827 on 10 February produced a black ash plume that rose 400 m above the summit and drifted NE and E (figure 12). Similar activity was reported on clear weather days, with white gas-and-steam emissions rising 50 m above the summit on 9, 11-12, 20, and 27 March and drifted E, SE, SW, NE, E, and N. On 17 March white-and-gray emissions rose 400 m above the summit and drifted N and E.
Geologic Background. Gunung Marapi, not to be confused with the better-known Merapi volcano on Java, is Sumatra's most active volcano. This massive complex stratovolcano rises 2,000 m above the Bukittinggi Plain in the Padang Highlands. A broad summit contains multiple partially overlapping summit craters constructed within the small 1.4-km-wide Bancah caldera. The summit craters are located along an ENE-WSW line, with volcanism migrating to the west. More than 50 eruptions, typically consisting of small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been recorded since the end of the 18th century; no lava flows outside the summit craters have been reported in historical time.
Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1).
Kikai
Japan
30.793°N, 130.305°E; summit elev. 704 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023
Kikai, located just S of the Ryukyu islands of Japan, contains a 19-km-wide mostly submarine caldera. The island of Satsuma Iwo Jima (also known as Satsuma-Iwo Jima and Tokara Iojima) is located at the NW caldera rim, as well as the island’s highest peak, Iodake. Its previous eruption period occurred on 6 October 2020 and was characterized by an explosion and thermal anomalies in the crater (BGVN 45:11). More recent activity has consisted of intermittent thermal activity and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 46:06). This report covers similar low-level activity including white gas-and-steam plumes, nighttime incandescence, seismicity, and discolored water during May 2021 through April 2023, using information from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and various satellite data. During this time, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a 5-level scale), according to JMA.
Activity was relatively low throughout the reporting period and has consisted of intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 200-1,400 m above the Iodake crater and nighttime incandescence was observed at the Iodake crater using a high-sensitivity surveillance camera. Each month, frequent volcanic earthquakes were detected, and sulfur dioxide masses were measured by the University of Tokyo Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Mishima Village, and JMA (table 6).
Table 6. Summary of gas-and-steam plume heights, number of volcanic earthquakes detected, and amount of sulfur dioxide emissions in tons per day (t/d). Courtesy of JMA monthly reports.
Month |
Max plume height (m) |
Volcanic earthquakes |
Sulfur dioxide emissions (t/d) |
May 2021 |
400 |
162 |
900-1,300 |
Jun 2021 |
800 |
117 |
500 |
Jul 2021 |
1,400 |
324 |
800-1,500 |
Aug 2021 |
1,000 |
235 |
700-1,000 |
Sep 2021 |
800 |
194 |
500-1,100 |
Oct 2021 |
800 |
223 |
600-800 |
Nov 2021 |
900 |
200 |
400-900 |
Dec 2021 |
1,000 |
161 |
500-1,800 |
Jan 2022 |
1,000 |
164 |
600-1,100 |
Feb 2022 |
1,000 |
146 |
500-1,600 |
Mar 2022 |
1,200 |
171 |
500-1,200 |
Apr 2022 |
1,000 |
144 |
600-1,000 |
May 2022 |
1,200 |
126 |
300-500 |
Jun 2022 |
1,000 |
154 |
400 |
Jul 2022 |
1,300 |
153 |
600-1,100 |
Aug 2022 |
1,100 |
109 |
600-1,500 |
Sep 2022 |
1,000 |
170 |
900 |
Oct 2022 |
800 |
249 |
700-1,200 |
Nov 2022 |
800 |
198 |
800-1,200 |
Dec 2022 |
700 |
116 |
600-1,500 |
Jan 2023 |
800 |
146 |
500-1,400 |
Feb 2023 |
800 |
135 |
600-800 |
Mar 2023 |
1,100 |
94 |
500-600 |
Apr 2023 |
800 |
82 |
500-700 |
Sentinel-2 satellite images show weak thermal anomalies at the Iodake crater on clear weather days, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions and occasional discolored water (figure 24). On 17 January 2022 JMA conducted an aerial overflight in cooperation with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force’s 1st Air Group, which confirmed a white gas-and-steam plume rising from the Iodake crater (figure 25). They also observed plumes from fumaroles rising from around the crater and on the E, SW, and N slopes. In addition, discolored water was reported near the coast around Iodake, which JMA stated was likely related to volcanic activity (figure 25). Similarly, an overflight taken on 11 January 2023 showed white gas-and-steam emissions rising from the Iodake crater, as well as discolored water that spread E from the coast around the island. On 14 February 2023 white fumaroles and discolored water were also captured during an overflight (figure 26).
Geologic Background. Multiple eruption centers have exhibited recent activity at Kikai, a mostly submerged, 19-km-wide caldera near the northern end of the Ryukyu Islands south of Kyushu. It was the source of one of the world's largest Holocene eruptions about 6,300 years ago when rhyolitic pyroclastic flows traveled across the sea for a total distance of 100 km to southern Kyushu, and ashfall reached the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. The eruption devastated southern and central Kyushu, which remained uninhabited for several centuries. Post-caldera eruptions formed Iodake (or Iwo-dake) lava dome and Inamuradake scoria cone, as well as submarine lava domes. Recorded eruptions have occurred at or near Satsuma-Iojima (also known as Tokara-Iojima), a small 3 x 6 km island forming part of the NW caldera rim. Showa-Iojima lava dome (also known as Iojima-Shinto), a small island 2 km E of Satsuma-Iojima, was formed during submarine eruptions in 1934 and 1935. Mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions have occurred during the past few decades from Iodake, a rhyolitic lava dome at the eastern end of Satsuma-Iojima.
Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Japan Coast Guard (JCG) Volcano Database, Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department, 3-1-1, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8932, Japan (URL: https://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/kaiikiDB/kaiyo30-2.htm); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).
Lewotolok (Indonesia) — May 2023 Cite this Report
Lewotolok
Indonesia
8.274°S, 123.508°E; summit elev. 1431 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Strombolian eruption continues through April 2023 with intermittent ash plumes
The current eruption at Lewotolok, in Indonesian’s Lesser Sunda Islands, began in late November 2020 and has included Strombolian explosions, occasional ash plumes, incandescent ejecta, intermittent thermal anomalies, and persistent white and white-and-gray emissions (BGVN 47:10). Similar activity continued during October 2022-April 2023, as described in this report based on information provided by Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM, or the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and satellite data.
During most days in October 2022 white and white-gray emissions rose as high as 200-600 m above the summit. Webcam images often showed incandescence above the crater rim. At 0351 on 14 October, an explosion produced a dense ash plume that rose about 1.2 km above the summit and drifted SW (figure 43). After this event, activity subsided and remained low through the rest of the year, but with almost daily white emissions.
After more than two months of relative quiet, PVMBG reported that explosions at 0747 on 14 January 2023 and at 2055 on 16 January produced white-and-gray ash plumes that rose around 400 m above the summit and drifted E and SE (figure 44). During the latter half of January through April, almost daily white or white-and-gray emissions were observed rising 25-800 m above the summit, and nighttime webcam images often showed incandescent material being ejected above the summit crater. Strombolian activity was visible in webcam images at 2140 on 11 February, 0210 on 18 February, and during 22-28 March. Frequent hotspots were recorded by the MIROVA detection system starting in approximately the second week of March 2023 that progressively increased into April (figure 45).
Explosions that produced dense ash plumes as high as 750 m above the summit were described in Volcano Observatory Notices for Aviation (VONA) at 0517, 1623, and 2016 on 22 March, at 1744 on 24 March, at 0103 on 26 March, at 0845 and 1604 on 27 March (figure 46), and at 0538 on 28 March. According to the Darwin VAAC, on 6 April another ash plume rose to 1.8 km altitude (about 370 m above the summit) and drifted N.
Sentinel-2 images over the previous year recorded thermal anomalies as well as the development of a lava flow that descended the NE flank beginning in June 2022 (figure 47). The volcano was often obscured by weather clouds, which also often hampered ground observations. Ash emissions were reported in March 2022 (BGVN 47:10), and clear imagery from 4 March 2022 showed recent lava flows confined to the crater, two thermal anomaly spots in the eastern part of the crater, and mainly white emissions from the SE. Thermal anomalies became stronger and more frequent in mid-May 2022, followed by strong Strombolian activity through June and July (BGVN 47:10); Sentinel-2 images on 2 June 2022 showed active lava flows within the crater and overflowing onto the NE flank. Clear images from 23 April 2023 (figure 47) show the extent of the cooled NE-flank lava flow, more extensive intra-crater flows, and two hotspots in slightly different locations compared to the previous March.
Geologic Background. The Lewotolok (or Lewotolo) stratovolcano occupies the eastern end of an elongated peninsula extending north into the Flores Sea, connected to Lembata (formerly Lomblen) Island by a narrow isthmus. It is symmetrical when viewed from the north and east. A small cone with a 130-m-wide crater constructed at the SE side of a larger crater forms the volcano's high point. Many lava flows have reached the coastline. Eruptions recorded since 1660 have consisted of explosive activity from the summit crater.
Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).
Barren Island (India) — April 2023 Cite this Report
Barren Island
India
12.278°N, 93.858°E; summit elev. 354 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Thermal activity during December 2022-March 2023
Barren Island is part of a N-S-trending volcanic arc extending between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar). The caldera, which is open to the sea on the west, was created during a major explosive eruption in the late Pleistocene that produced pyroclastic flow and surge deposits. Eruptions dating back to 1787, have changed the morphology of the pyroclastic cone in the center of the caldera, and lava flows that fill much of the caldera floor have reached the sea along the western coast. Previous activity was detected during mid-May 2022, consisting of intermittent thermal activity. This report covers June 2022 through March 2023, which included strong thermal activity beginning in late December 2022, based on various satellite data.
Activity was relatively quiet during June through late December 2022 and mostly consisted of low-power thermal anomalies, based on the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph. During late December, a spike in both power and frequency of thermal anomalies was detected (figure 58). There was another pulse in thermal activity in mid-March, which consisted of more frequent and relatively strong anomalies.
The Suomi NPP/VIIRS sensor data showed five thermal alerts on 29 December 2022. The number of alerts increased to 19 on 30 December. According to the Darwin VAAC, ash plumes identified in satellite images captured at 2340 on 30 December and at 0050 on 31 December rose to 1.5 km altitude and drifted SW. The ash emissions dissipated by 0940. On 31 December, a large thermal anomaly was detected; based on a Sentinel-2 infrared satellite image, the anomaly was relatively strong and extended to the N (figure 59).
Thermal activity continued during January through March. Sentinel-2 infrared satellite data showed some thermal anomalies of varying intensity on clear weather days on 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 January 2023, 9, 14, 19, and 24 February 2023, and 21, 26, and 31 March (figure 59). According to Suomi NPP/VIIRS sensor data, a total of 30 thermal anomalies were detected over 18 days on 2-3, 7, 9-14, 16-17, 20, 23, 25, and 28-31 January. The sensor data showed a total of six hotspots detected over six days on 1, 4-5, and 10-12 February. During March, a total of 33 hotspots were visible over 11 days on 20-31 March. Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued on 25, 27, and 29 March.
Geologic Background. Barren Island, a possession of India in the Andaman Sea about 135 km NE of Port Blair in the Andaman Islands, is the only historically active volcano along the N-S volcanic arc extending between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar). It is the emergent summit of a volcano that rises from a depth of about 2250 m. The small, uninhabited 3-km-wide island contains a roughly 2-km-wide caldera with walls 250-350 m high. The caldera, which is open to the sea on the west, was created during a major explosive eruption in the late Pleistocene that produced pyroclastic-flow and -surge deposits. Historical eruptions have changed the morphology of the pyroclastic cone in the center of the caldera, and lava flows that fill much of the caldera floor have reached the sea along the western coast.
Information Contacts: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); NASA Worldview (URL: https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/).
Villarrica
Chile
39.42°S, 71.93°W; summit elev. 2847 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Nighttime crater incandescence, ash emissions, and seismicity during October 2022-March 2023
Villarrica, located in central Chile, consists of a 2-km-wide caldera that formed about 3,500 years ago, located at the base of the presently active cone. Historical eruptions date back to 1558 and have been characterized by mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusions. The current eruption period began in December 2014 and has recently consisted of ongoing seismicity, gas-and-steam emissions, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:10). This report covers activity during October 2022 through March 2023 and describes Strombolian explosions, ash emissions, and crater incandescence. Information for this report primarily comes from the Southern Andes Volcano Observatory (Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur, OVDAS), part of Chile's National Service of Geology and Mining (Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, SERNAGEOMIN) and satellite data.
Seismicity during October consisted of discrete long-period (LP)-type events, tremor (TR), and volcano-tectonic (VT)-type events. Webcam images showed eruption plumes rising as high as 460 m above the crater rim; plumes deposited tephra on the E, S, and SW flanks within 500 m of the crater on 2, 18, 23, and 31 October. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 80-300 m above the crater accompanied by crater incandescence during 2-3 October. There was a total of 5 VT-type events, 10,625 LP-type events, and 2,232 TR-type events detected throughout the month. Sulfur dioxide data was obtained by the Differential Absorption Optical Spectroscopy Equipment (DOAS) installed 6 km in an ESE direction. The average value of the sulfur dioxide emissions was 535 ± 115 tons per day (t/d); the highest daily maximum was 1,273 t/d on 13 October. These values were within normal levels and were lower compared to September. During the night of 3-4 October Strombolian activity ejected blocks as far as 40 m toward the NW flank. Small, gray-brown ash pulses rose 60 m above the crater accompanied white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 40-300 m high during 4-5 October. In addition, crater incandescence and Strombolian explosions that ejected blocks were reported during 4-5 and 9-11 October. Based on satellite images from 12 October, ballistic ejecta traveled as far as 400 m and the resulting ash was deposited 3.2 km to the E and SE and 900 m to the NW.
Satellite images from 14 October showed an active lava lake that covered an area of 36 square meters in the E part of the crater floor. There was also evidence of a partial collapse (less than 300 square meters) at the inner SSW crater rim. POVI posted an 18 October photo that showed incandescence above the crater rim, noting that crater incandescence was visible during clear weather nights. In addition, webcam images at 1917 showed lava fountaining and Strombolian explosions; tourists also described seeing splashes of lava ejected from a depth of 80 m and hearing loud degassing sounds. Tephra deposits were visible around the crater rim and on the upper flanks on 24 October. On 25 October SERNAGEOMIN reported that both the number and amplitude of LP earthquakes had increased, and continuous tremor also increased; intense crater incandescence was visible in satellite images. On 31 October Strombolian explosions intensified and ejected material onto the upper flanks.
Activity during November consisted of above-baseline seismicity, including intensifying continuous tremor and an increase in the number of LP earthquakes. On 1 November a lava fountain was visible rising above the crater rim. Nighttime crater incandescence was captured in webcam images on clear weather days. Strombolian explosions ejected incandescent material on the NW and SW flanks during 1, 2, and 6-7 November. POVI reported that the width of the lava fountains that rose above the crater rim on 2 November suggested that the vent on the crater floor was roughly 6 m in diameter. Based on reports from observers and analyses of satellite imagery, material that was deposited on the upper flanks, primarily to the NW, consisted of clasts up to 20 cm in diameter. During an overflight on 19 November SERNAGEOMIN scientists observed a cone on the crater floor with an incandescent vent at its center that contained a lava lake. Deposits of ejecta were also visible on the flanks. That same day a 75-minute-long series of volcano-tectonic earthquakes was detected at 1940; a total of 21 events occurred 7.8 km ESE of the crater. Another overflight on 25 November showed the small cone on the crater floor with an incandescent lava lake at the center; the temperature of the lava lake was 1,043 °C, based data gathered during the overflight.
Similar seismicity, crater incandescence, and gas-and-steam emissions continued during December. On 1 December incandescent material was ejected 80-220 m above the crater rim. During an overflight on 6 December, intense gas-and-steam emissions from the lava lake was reported, in addition to tephra deposits on the S and SE flanks as far as 500 m from the crater. During 7-12 December seismicity increased slightly and white, low-altitude gas-and-steam emissions and crater incandescence were occasionally visible. On 24 December at 0845 SERNAGEOMIN reported an increase in Strombolian activity; explosions ejected material that generally rose 100 m above the crater, although one explosion ejected incandescent tephra as far as 400 m from the crater onto the SW flank. According to POVI, 11 explosions ejected incandescent material that affected the upper SW flank between 2225 on 25 December to 0519 on 26 December. POVI recorded 21 Strombolian explosions that ejected incandescent material onto the upper SW flank from 2200 on 28 December to 0540 on 29 December. More than 100 Strombolian explosions ejected material onto the upper W and NW flanks during 30-31 December. On 30 December at 2250 an explosion was detected that generated an eruptive column rising 120 m above the crater and ejecting incandescent material 300 m on the NW flank (figure 120). Explosions detected at 2356 on 31 December ejected material 480 m from the crater rim onto the NW flank and at 0219 material was deposited on the same flank as far as 150 m. Both explosions ejected material as high as 120 m above the crater rim.
During January 2023, Strombolian explosions and lava fountaining continued mainly in the crater, ejecting material 100 m above the crater. Gas-and-steam emissions rose 40-260 m above the crater and drifted in different directions, and LP-type events continued. Emissions during the night of 11 January including some ash rose 80 m above the crater and as far as 250 m NE flank. POVI scientists reported about 70 lava fountaining events from 2130 on 14 January to 0600 on 15 January. At 2211 on 15 January there was an increase in frequency of Strombolian explosions that ejected incandescent material 60-150 m above the crater. Some ashfall was detected around the crater. POVI noted that on 19 January lava was ejected as high as 140 m above the crater rim and onto the W and SW flanks. Explosion noises were heard on 19 and 22 January in areas within a radius of 10 km. During 22-23 January Strombolian explosions ejected incandescent material 60-100 m above the crater that drifted SE. A seismic event at 1204 on 27 January was accompanied by an ash plume that rose 220 m above the crater and drifted E (figure 121); later that same day at 2102 an ash plume rose 180 m above the crater and drifted E.
Seismicity, primarily characterized by LP-type events, and Strombolian explosions persisted during February and March. POVI reported that three explosions were heard during 1940-1942 on 6 February, and spatter was seen rising 30 m above the crater rim hours later. On 9 February lava fountains were visible rising 50 m above the crater rim. On 17 February Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater rim and onto the upper SW flank. Webcam images from 20 February showed two separate fountains of incandescent material, which suggested that a second vent had opened to the E of the first vent. Spatter was ejected as high as 80 m above the crater rim and onto the upper NE flank. A sequence of Strombolian explosions was visible from 2030 on 20 February to 0630 on 21 February. Material was ejected as high as 80 m above the crater rim and onto the upper E flank. LP-type earthquakes recorded 1056 and at 1301 on 27 February were associated with ash plumes that rose 300 m above the crater and drifted NE (figure 122). Crater incandescence above the crater rim was observed in webcam images on 13 March, which indicated Strombolian activity. POVI posted a webcam image from 2227 on 18 March showing Strombolian explosions that ejected material as high as 100 m above the crater rim. Explosions were heard up to 8 km away. On 19 March at 1921 an ash emission rose 340 m above the crater and drifted NE. On 21 and 26 March Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 and 110 m above the crater rim, respectively. On 21 March Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater rim. Low-intensity nighttime crater incandescence was detected by surveillance cameras on 24 March.
Infrared MODIS satellite data processed by MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) detected an increase in thermal activity during mid-November, which corresponds to sustained Strombolian explosions, lava fountaining, and crater incandescence (figure 123). This activity was also consistently captured on clear weather days throughout the reporting period in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images (figure 124).
Geologic Background. The glacier-covered Villarrica stratovolcano, in the northern Lakes District of central Chile, is ~15 km south of the city of Pucon. A 2-km-wide caldera that formed about 3,500 years ago is located at the base of the presently active, dominantly basaltic to basaltic-andesite cone at the NW margin of a 6-km-wide Pleistocene caldera. More than 30 scoria cones and fissure vents are present on the flanks. Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows that have extended up to 20 km from the volcano were produced during the Holocene. Lava flows up to 18 km long have issued from summit and flank vents. Eruptions documented since 1558 CE have consisted largely of mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion. Glaciers cover 40 km2 of the volcano, and lahars have damaged towns on its flanks.
Information Contacts: Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN), Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur (OVDAS), Avda Sta María No. 0104, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.sernageomin.cl/); Proyecto Observación Villarrica Internet (POVI) (URL: http://www.povi.cl/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).
Fuego
Guatemala
14.473°N, 90.88°W; summit elev. 3763 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, avalanches, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023
Fuego, one of three large stratovolcanoes overlooking the city of Antigua, Guatemala, has been vigorously erupting since January 2002, with recorded eruptions dating back to 1531 CE. Eruptive activity has included major ashfalls, pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and lahars. Frequent explosions with ash emissions, block avalanches, and lava flows have persisted since 2018. More recently, activity remained relatively consistent with daily explosions, ash plumes, ashfall, avalanches, and lahars (BGVN 48:03). This report covers similar activity during December 2022 through March 2023, based on information from the Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrologia (INSIVUMEH) daily reports, Coordinadora Nacional para la Reducción de Desastres (CONRED) newsletters, and various satellite data.
Daily explosions reported throughout December 2022-March 2023 generated ash plumes to 6 km altitude that drifted as far as 60 km in multiple directions. The explosions also caused rumbling sounds of varying intensities, with shock waves that vibrated the roofs and windows of homes near the volcano. Incandescent pulses of material rose 100-500 m above the crater, which caused block avalanches around the crater and toward the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá (SW), Ceniza (SSW), El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas (SE), Seca (W), and Trinidad (S) drainages. Fine ashfall was also frequently reported in nearby communities (table 27). MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed frequent, moderate thermal activity throughout the reporting period; however, there was a brief decline in both power and frequency during late-to-mid-January 2023 (figure 166). A total of 79 MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued: 16 during December 2022, 17 during January 2023, 23 during February, and 23 during March. Some of these thermal evets were also visible in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite imagery at the summit crater, which also showed occasional incandescent block avalanches descending the S, W, and NW flanks, and accompanying ash plumes that drifted W (figure 167).
Table 27. Activity at Fuego during December 2022 through March 2023 included multiple explosions every hour. Ash emissions rose as high as 6 km altitude and drifted generally W and SW as far as 60 km, causing ashfall in many communities around the volcano. Data from daily INSIVUMEH reports and CONRED newsletters.
Month |
Explosions per hour |
Ash plume altitude (max) |
Ash plume distance (km) and direction |
Drainages affected by block avalanches |
Communities reporting ashfall |
Dec 2022 |
1-12 |
6 km |
WSW, W, SW, NW, S, SE, NE, and E, 10-30 km |
Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas, Seca, and Trinidad |
Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Finca Palo Verde, Yepocapa, Yucales, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceilán, San Andrés Osuna, and Aldea La Cruz |
Jan 2023 |
1-12 |
5 km |
W, SW, NW, S, N, NE, E, and SE, 7-60 km |
Ceniza, Las Lajas, Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Trinidad, Seca, Honda, and El Jute |
Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Palo Verde, Yucales, Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceylon, Alotenango, and San Andrés Osuna |
Feb 2023 |
1-12 |
4.9 km |
SW, W, NW, and N, 10-30 km |
Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, Las Lajas, Seca, Trinidad, El Jute, and Honda |
Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, Palo Verde, San Pedro Yepocapa, El Porvenir, Sangre de Cristo, La Soledad, Acatenango, El Campamento, and La Asunción |
Mar 2023 |
3-11 |
5 km |
W, SW, NW, NE, N, S, SE, and E, 10-30 km |
Seca, Ceniza, Taniluyá, Las Lajas, Honda, Trinidad, El Jute, and Santa Teresa |
Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, La Asunción, Palo Verde, La Rochela, San Andrés Osuna, Ceilán, and Aldeas |
Daily explosions ranged between 1 and 12 per hour during December 2022, generating ash plumes that rose to 4.5-6 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km in multiple directions. These explosions created rumbling sounds with a shock wave that vibrated the roofs and windows of homes near the volcano. Frequent white gas-and-steam plumes rose to 4.6 km altitude. Strombolian activity resulted in incandescent pulses that generally rose 100-500 m above the crater, which generated weak-to-moderate avalanches around the crater and toward the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas, Seca, and Trinidad drainages, where material sometimes reached vegetation. Fine ashfall was recorded in Panimaché I and II (8 km SW), Morelia (9 km SW), Santa Sofía (12 km SW), El Porvenir (8 km ENE), Finca Palo Verde, Yepocapa (8 km NW), Yucales (12 km SW), Sangre de Cristo (8 km WSW), La Rochela, Ceilán, San Andrés Osuna, and Aldea La Cruz. INSIVUMEH reported that on 10 December a lava flow formed in the Ceniza drainage and measured 800 m long; it remained active at least through 12 December and block avalanches were reported at the front of the flow. A pyroclastic flow was reported at 1100 on 10 December, descending the Las Lajas drainage for several kilometers and reaching the base of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows were also observed in the Ceniza drainage for several kilometers, reaching the base of the volcano on 11 December. Ash plumes rose as high as 6 km altitude, according to a special bulletin from INSIVUMEH. On 31 December explosions produced incandescent pulses that rose 300 m above the crater, which covered the upper part of the cone.
Activity during January 2023 consisted of 1-12 daily explosions, which produced ash plumes that rose to 4.2-5 km altitude and drifted 7-60 km in multiple directions (figure 168). Incandescent pulses of material were observed 100-350 m above the crater, which generated avalanches around the crater and down the Ceniza, Las Lajas, Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Trinidad, Seca, Honda, and El Jute drainages. Sometimes, the avalanches resuspended older fine material 100-500 m above the surface that drifted W and SW. Ashfall was recorded in Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Palo Verde, Yucales, Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceylon, Alotenango, and San Andrés Osuna. Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes rose to 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and NW.
There were 1-12 daily explosions recorded through February, which generated ash plumes that rose to 4.2-4.9 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km SW, W, NW, and N. Intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions rose 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and SW. During the nights and early mornings, incandescent pulses were observed 100-400 m above the crater. Weak-to-moderate avalanches were also observed down the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, Las Lajas, Seca, Trinidad, El Jute, and Honda drainages, sometimes reaching the edge of vegetated areas. Occasional ashfall was reported in Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, Palo Verde, San Pedro Yepocapa, El Porvenir, Sangre de Cristo, La Soledad, Acatenango, El Campamento, and La Asunción. On 18 February strong winds resuspended previous ash deposits as high as 1 km above the surface that blew 12 km SW and S.
During March, daily explosions ranged from 3-11 per hour, producing ash plumes that rose to 4-5 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km W, SW, NW, NE, N, S, SE, and E. During the night and early morning, crater incandescence (figure 169) and incandescent pulses of material were observed 50-400 m above the crater. Weak-to-moderate avalanches affected the Seca, Ceniza, Taniluyá, Las Lajas, Honda, Trinidad, El Jute, and Santa Teresa drainages, sometimes reaching the edge of vegetation. Frequent ashfall was detected in Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, La Asunción, Palo Verde, La Rochela, San Andrés Osuna, Ceilán, and Aldeas. Weak ashfall was recorded in San Andrés Osuna, La Rochela, Ceylon during 8-9 March. A lahar was reported in the Ceniza drainage on 15 March, carrying fine, hot volcanic material, tree branches, trunks, and blocks from 30 cm to 1.5 m in diameter. On 18 March lahars were observed in the Las Lajas and El Jute drainages, carrying fine volcanic material, tree branches and trunks, and blocks from 30 cm to 1.5 m in diameter. As a result, there was also damage to the road infrastructure between El Rodeo and El Zapote.
Geologic Background. Volcán Fuego, one of Central America's most active volcanoes, is also one of three large stratovolcanoes overlooking Guatemala's former capital, Antigua. The scarp of an older edifice, Meseta, lies between Fuego and Acatenango to the north. Construction of Meseta dates back to about 230,000 years and continued until the late Pleistocene or early Holocene. Collapse of Meseta may have produced the massive Escuintla debris-avalanche deposit, which extends about 50 km onto the Pacific coastal plain. Growth of the modern Fuego volcano followed, continuing the southward migration of volcanism that began at the mostly andesitic Acatenango. Eruptions at Fuego have become more mafic with time, and most historical activity has produced basaltic rocks. Frequent vigorous historical eruptions have been recorded since the onset of the Spanish era in 1524, and have produced major ashfalls, along with occasional pyroclastic flows and lava flows.
Information Contacts: Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia e Hydrologia (INSIVUMEH), Unit of Volcanology, Geologic Department of Investigation and Services, 7a Av. 14-57, Zona 13, Guatemala City, Guatemala (URL: http://www.insivumeh.gob.gt/ ); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).
Santa Maria (Guatemala) — April 2023 Cite this Report
Santa Maria
Guatemala
14.757°N, 91.552°W; summit elev. 3745 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Active lava flows, explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023
The Santiaguito lava-dome complex of Guatemala's Santa María volcano has been actively erupting since 1922. The lava dome-complex formed within a large crater on the SW flank of Santa Maria that formed during the 1902 eruption. Ash explosions, pyroclastic flows, and lava flows have emerged from Caliente, the youngest of the four vents in the complex, for more than 40 years. The Caliente vent has an elevation of about 2.5 km, and the summit of Santa Maria is at about 3.7 km elevation. A lava dome that appeared within the summit crater of Caliente in October 2016 has continued to grow, producing frequent block avalanches down the flanks. Recent activity has included frequent explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall (BGVN 48:03) has persisted for this reporting period of December 2022 through March 2023, using information from Guatemala's INSIVUMEH (Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meterologia e Hidrologia) and satellite data.
Activity during December 2022 consisted of weak-to-moderate explosions and white-to-gray and blue gas-and-steam emissions that rose 200-800 m above the crater and drifted up to 15 km SW, NW, S, W, SSW, E, SE, and N. Explosions generated ash plumes that drifted as far as 6 km W and SW. Nighttime crater incandescence was often visible above the Caliente dome, accompanied by active lava flows that mainly traveled down the W, SW, and WSW flanks each day during December, also affecting the San Isidro (W) and El Tambor (SW) drainages. Frequent block-and-ash avalanches were detected on the W, WSW, S, and SE flanks, which sometimes resulted in ash plumes that drifted up to 10 km downwind. Ashfall was reported in Finca la Mosqueta and Santa Marta (5-6 km SW) on 2 December and in Las Marías (10 km S), Viejo Palmar, and the Palajunoj area on 9 December. On 11 December the active lava flow in the San Isidro and El Tambor drainages generated some block collapses, which resulted in ash clouds that rose several hundred meters high and drifted toward the Zanjón Seco drainage (SW flank). On 13, 18, 27, and 31 December block collapses from the lava flow generated ash clouds that rose several hundred meters high and drifted toward the San Isidro drainage. The smell of sulfur was reported on 13 December to the SE of the Caliente dome and on 14 December in the Las Marías area. Ashfall was recorded in Lotación Las Marías, Santa Marta, La Florida (6 km S), and El Faro (7 km S) on 22 December, which was accompanied by the smell of sulfur. Explosions on 27 and 31 December resulted in weak ashfall in El Faro, La Florida, Santa Marta, El Viejo (11 km S), El Palmar (12 km SSW), and Lotación Las Marías.
Daily white-to-gray gas-and-steam emissions continued during January 2023, rising 300-900 m above the crater, and drifting 3.5-8 km SW, W, S, SE, and E. Weak-to-moderate explosions persisted throughout the month, generating ash plumes that rose up to 900 m and drifted E, NE, and SW. Crater incandescence in the Caliente dome, on the S flank, and at the front of the lava flow on the W and SW flanks was visible. Lava flows were often observed on the W, SW, and WSW flanks in the San Isidro and El Tambor drainages; on 19 and 23 January the active lava flow was noted in the Zanjón Seco and San Isidro drainages and the longest part of the lava flow was 4.4 km on 15 January. Weak-to-moderate block collapses and block-and-ash avalanches were recorded at the middle and front of the lava flow on the W, SW, and WSW flanks of the Caliente dome, and on the S and SE flanks, which sometimes caused ash to rise as high as 1 km altitude and disperse 3 km to the W and S (figure 135). On 7 January explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 3 km altitude and drifted SW. On 9 January ashfall was recorded over Las Marías and El Viejo Palmar. The active lava flow in the San Isidro and El Tambor drainages generated some block collapses on 11 January, which produced ash plumes that rose several hundred meters high and caused weak ashfall in El Faro, La Florida, Santa Marta, El Viejo Palmar, and Las Marías. Ashfall was recorded at Monte Carlo on 13 January, weak ashfall was reported in El Faro, La Florida, Santa Marta, El Viejo Palmar, and Las Marías on 19 January, and weak ashfall was again reported on 23 January in Monte Claro, El Faro, La Florida, Santa Marta, and El Viejo Palmar.
Similar activity persisted during February with frequent explosions that produced white gas-and-steam and ash emissions that rose 200-700 m above the crater and drifted SW, W, SE, E, and NW. During the night and early morning, constant crater incandescence at Caliente dome was observed, in addition to incandescence from the active lava flow on the W, SW, and WSW flanks. Weak-and-moderate avalanches were visible on the S, SW, W, SE, WSW, and E flanks and in the middle and front of the lava flow, sometimes generating ash clouds that rose several hundred meters high. Explosions on 3 February expelled gas-and-ash plumes that rose to 3.2 km altitude and drifted W. On 4 February explosions were accompanied by audible rumbles heard in El Palmar; gas-and-ash plumes rose several hundred meters above the lava dome and incandescent avalanches traveled W, S, and SE on the flanks. That same day, the lava flow was reported in the Zanjón Seco and San Isidro drainages; block collapses generated ash clouds that rose several hundred meters high. Weak ashfall was reported in Monte Claro, El Faro, La Florida, Santa Marta, and El Viejo Palmar. Seismic stations registered weak-to-moderate explosions that produced gray plumes that rose to 3.3 km altitude on 8, 11, and 19 February, which generally drifted W and SW. On 9 February ash plumes that rose 800 m above the crater and extended E. Explosions and block collapses on 12 February caused ashfall in Monte Claro, El Faro, La Florida, Santa Marta, and El Viejo Palmar. During the early morning of 15 February, four explosions were detected that generated gray plumes that rose to 2.9 km altitude. Nine explosions were recorded on 16 February, which produced gray plumes and generated weak avalanches on all flanks. On 20 February weak ashfalls from explosions and block collapses were reported in Monte Claro, El Faro, La Florida, Santa Marta, and El Viejo Palmar. Measurements taken on 23 February showed that the length of the lava flow was 4.3 km long.
During March, degassing 400-800 m above the crater dispersed W, SW, S, and SE, and nighttime crater and lava flow incandescence to the WSW continued. Weak-to-moderate avalanches were reported on the S, W, SE, E, and N flanks and from the middle and front of the lava flow. The lava flow remained active on the SW, W, and WSW flanks and in the Zanjón Seco and San Isidro drainages, occasionally accompanied by block collapses that generated ash clouds up to several hundreds of meters high. Weak-to-moderate explosions persisted throughout the month, producing gas-and-ash emissions rising 500-1,000 m above the crater and drifting SW. On 19 March a gas-and-ash plume rose to 3.2 km altitude and drifted S and SE; the lava flow remained at 4.3 km long on the SW flank, according to INSIVUMEH. Additionally, strong rains in the upper part of the volcanic complex caused a lahar to descend the Cabello de Ángel drainage on the SE flank, consisting of a cement-like mixture of volcanic material and transporting tree branches of varying sizes. Small pyroclastic flows were reported during 22-23 March. Explosions on 23 March generated an ash plume that rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted W and on 24 March ash plumes rose to 4.3 km altitude and drifted W. On 31 March explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted W, accompanied by constant avalanches on the S, SW, E, and N flanks of the Caliente dome and small pyroclastic flows.
The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph showed moderate-power thermal anomalies during the reporting period; the intensity gradually increased over January through March, and the frequency remained relatively high (figure 136). A total of 75 MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued on 40 days during December-March. Incandescent avalanches and active lava flows were also occasionally visible over the Caliente dome in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite imagery on clear weather days (figure 137).
Geologic Background. Symmetrical, forest-covered Santa María volcano is part of a chain of large stratovolcanoes that rise above the Pacific coastal plain of Guatemala. The sharp-topped, conical profile is cut on the SW flank by a 1.5-km-wide crater. The oval-shaped crater extends from just below the summit to the lower flank, and was formed during a catastrophic eruption in 1902. The renowned Plinian eruption of 1902 that devastated much of SW Guatemala followed a long repose period after construction of the large basaltic-andesite stratovolcano. The massive dacitic Santiaguito lava-dome complex has been growing at the base of the 1902 crater since 1922. Compound dome growth at Santiaguito has occurred episodically from four vents, with activity progressing E towards the most recent, Caliente. Dome growth has been accompanied by almost continuous minor explosions, with periodic lava extrusion, larger explosions, pyroclastic flows, and lahars.
Information Contacts: Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia e Hydrologia (INSIVUMEH), Unit of Volcanology, Geologic Department of Investigation and Services, 7a Av. 14-57, Zona 13, Guatemala City, Guatemala (URL: http://www.insivumeh.gob.gt/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).
Reventador (Ecuador) — April 2023 Cite this Report
Reventador
Ecuador
0.077°S, 77.656°W; summit elev. 3562 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Daily explosions, gas-and-ash emissions, crater incandescence, and block avalanches during December 2022-March 2023
Volcán El Reventador, located in Ecuador, includes a 4-km-wide avalanche scarp open to the E. Recorded eruptions date back to the 16th century and have been characterized by explosive events, lava flows, ash plumes, and lahars. Frequent lahars in this region of heavy rainfall have built deposits on the scarp slope. The largest recorded eruption took place in 2002, producing a 17-km-high eruption column, pyroclastic flows that traveled up to 8 km, and lava flows from summit and flank vents. The current eruption began in July 2008 and more recently has consisted of daily explosions, ash plumes, lava flows, and block avalanches (BGVN 48:02). This report covers similar activity during December 2022 through March 2023 using daily reports from Ecuador's Instituto Geofisico (IG-EPN), the Washington Volcano Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and satellite data.
During December 2022 through March 2023, IG-EPN reported daily explosions, gas-and-steam and ash plumes rising as high as 1,100 m above the crater, and frequent crater incandescence, often accompanied by incandescent block avalanches and lava flows that traveled down each of the flanks and lava flows that generally affected the NE and E flanks. On average, there were more daily explosions detected during December 2022 compared to January through March 2023, with 57 per day (table 17).
Table 17. Monthly summary of explosions and plume heights recorded at Reventador from December 2022 through March 2023. Data courtesy of IG-EPN (December 2022-March 2023 daily reports).
Month |
Average number of explosions per day |
Max plume height above the crater rim (m) |
Dec 2022 |
57 |
1,000 |
Jan 2023 |
43 |
1,000 |
Feb 2023 |
30 |
1,000 |
Mar 2023 |
33 |
1,100 |
Activity during December 2022 consisted of daily explosions, ash plumes, crater incandescence, a lava flow, and occasional block avalanches, though cloudy weather often obscured clear views of the summit. There were 0-114 explosions recorded each day, in addition to long-period (LP) events and tremor emissions (TREMI). The Washington VAAC reported ash emissions that rose as high as 1.9 km above the crater during 5-6 and 12-13 December and drifted in different directions. IG-EPN also noted that gas-and-ash emissions rose 400-1,000 m above the summit and drifted S, W, NW, W, N, SW (figure 169). A lava flow was observed on the NE flank during 2-6 December and on the E flank during 9-11 December. There were six volcano-tectonic (VT) events detected during 7-8 December. Block avalanches frequently affected one, or multiple flanks, traveling 400-700 m below the crater. During 11-12 December a lava flow was reported on the NE flank.
Daily explosions and ash plumes continued during January 2023, with 12-96 explosions recorded each day. LP and TREMI-type events and crater incandescence were also frequently recorded on clear weather days, cloudy weather often obscured views of the summit. Gas-and-ash emissions rose 500-1,000 m above the crater and drifted W, NW, SW, N, and S. According to the Washington VAAC, ash emissions rose 688-3,750 m above the crater and drifted in multiple directions. During 31 December 2022 through 1 January 2023 nighttime crater incandescence was accompanied by block avalanches 500 m below the crater on all flanks. The lava flow continued to be observed on the NE flank during 31 December 2022 as well as during 1, 5-6, 7-9, 10-11, 16-17, 18-20, and 23-26 January. Block avalanches traveled 500-700 m from the crater throughout the month, affecting one or multiple flanks (figure 170). An ash plume was reported on 15 January that drifted S. A pyroclastic flow occurred during the morning of 29 January on the N flank.
During February there were 12-100 daily explosions detected, along with LP and TREMI-type events. Crater incandescence persisted, in addition to block avalanches. Gas-and-ash emissions rose 200-1,000 m above the crater and drifted W, NW, NE, and N (figure 171). The Washington VAAC reported that ash emissions rose 400-2,200 m above the crater and drifted NE, NW, W, SW, SE, and N. During 1-6, 13-17, and 21-26 February incandescent block avalanches descended all the flanks 600-900 m below the crater. An active lava flow continued down the NE flank during 8-10, 14-15, 18-19, and 20-21 February. Block avalanches descended the E flank 900 m below the crater during 10-11 February. There were three VT-type events that were detected on 24 February.
Daily explosions, LP and TREMI-type events, crater incandescence, and block avalanches continued during March. There were 20-52 daily explosions recorded during the month. Cloudy weather often prevented clear views of the summit. Gas-and-ash emissions rose 600-1,100 m above the crater and drifted NW, W, N, NE, E, S, and SE. According to the Washington VAAC, ash emissions rose 688-1,300 m above the crater and drifted NW, W, NE, E, and SE. Block avalanches traveled down all the flanks 400-700 m below the crater during 2-3, 5-6, 8-12, 14-17, 23-24, and 30-31 March. During 6-7 March block avalanches descended all the flanks as far as 900 m below the crater, accompanied by ash emissions that rose 1,000 m above the summit that drifted W. IG-EPN reported that a lahar was detected on 6 March. During the nights of 12 and 15 March incandescent blocks moved down the S flank 400-500 m below the crater. During 20-21 March ash emissions rose 1 km above the crater and drifted S and SE (figure 172); reports from the Secretaría de Gestión de Riesgos (SGR) reported that light ashfall was observed in San Carlos and San Luis.
Additional satellite data. MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed frequent thermal anomalies of moderate power during December 2022 through mid-January 2023, followed by a break in detected activity through late February (figure 173). During March, eight anomalies were detected intermittently throughout the month. The MODVOLC system identified a total of two thermal hotspots on 6 December 2022 and 20 March 2023. Although the summit was often obscured by weather clouds, Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images sometimes showed thermal activity at the summit crater (figure 174).
Geologic Background. Volcán El Reventador is the most frequently active of a chain of Ecuadorian volcanoes in the Cordillera Real, well east of the principal volcanic axis. The forested, dominantly andesitic stratovolcano has 4-km-wide avalanche scarp open to the E formed by edifice collapse. A young, unvegetated, cone rises from the amphitheater floor to a height comparable to the rim. It has been the source of numerous lava flows as well as explosive eruptions visible from Quito, about 90 km ESE. Frequent lahars in this region of heavy rainfall have left extensive deposits on the scarp slope. The largest recorded eruption took place in 2002, producing a 17-km-high eruption column, pyroclastic flows that traveled up to 8 km, and lava flows from summit and flank vents.
Information Contacts: Instituto Geofísico, Escuela Politécnica Nacional (IG-EPN), Casilla 17-01-2759, Quito, Ecuador (URL: http://www.igepn.edu.ec/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).
Search Bulletin Archive by Publication Date
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Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network - Volume 17, Number 09 (September 1992)
Managing Editor: Lindsay McClelland
Aira (Japan)
Explosions and quiet ash emissions
Akan (Japan)
Summit-area seismic swarm
Arenal (Costa Rica)
Lava production and Strombolian activity continue
Asosan (Japan)
Blocks ejected by explosive episode
Chichon, El (Mexico)
Occasional seismicity; lake less acidic
Erta Ale (Ethiopia)
Lava lake in one of two summit-caldera craters; recent lava overflows of caldera rim
Etna (Italy)
Lava flows from tube system remain within 1991-92 lava field
Fournaise, Piton de la (France)
Summit fissure eruption follows 7 months of seismicity
Galeras (Colombia)
Seismicity declines; little deformation
Irazu (Costa Rica)
Continued fumarolic activity
Kavachi (Solomon Islands)
Bathymetric survey reveals gas emission
Kilauea (United States)
New vent opens after M 4.5 earthquake
Kozushima (Japan)
Weak earthquake swarm
Langila (Papua New Guinea)
Ash emission and weak glow
Lengai, Ol Doinyo (Tanzania)
Vigorous summit-crater lava production
Manam (Papua New Guinea)
Strong explosions; pyroclastic and lava flows
Niijima (Japan)
Two weak seismic swarms
Nyamulagira (DR Congo)
Continued lava production from fissure vent
Pinatubo (Philippines)
Lava-dome growth; pyroclastic-flow deposits spawn destructive lahars and secondary explosions
Poas (Costa Rica)
Degassing continues in and around crater lake
Rabaul (Papua New Guinea)
Seismicity declines
Rincon de la Vieja (Costa Rica)
Strong fumarolic activity; seismic swarm
Ruapehu (New Zealand)
Crater Lake cools
Spurr (United States)
Strong seismicity but no new eruptive episodes
Turrialba (Costa Rica)
Occasional seismicity
Unnamed (Solomon Islands)
Thermal plumes detected over seamount crater
Unzendake (Japan)
Continued lava-dome growth; collapses generate pyroclastic flows
Whakaari/White Island (New Zealand)
Block ejection enlarges active crater
Zaozan [Zaosan] (Japan)
Earthquake and numerous aftershocks, but no surface changes evident
Aira
Japan
31.5772°N, 130.6589°E; summit elev. 1117 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Explosions and quiet ash emissions
An explosion occurred . . . on 7 September, the first since 29 July. Another five explosions were detected and eight quiet ash eruptions were observed in September. The highest ash plume rose 3.5 km . . . on 4 September. No damage has been caused by these eruptions.
Geologic Background. The Aira caldera in the northern half of Kagoshima Bay contains the post-caldera Sakurajima volcano, one of Japan's most active. Eruption of the voluminous Ito pyroclastic flow accompanied formation of the 17 x 23 km caldera about 22,000 years ago. The smaller Wakamiko caldera was formed during the early Holocene in the NE corner of the caldera, along with several post-caldera cones. The construction of Sakurajima began about 13,000 years ago on the southern rim and built an island that was joined to the Osumi Peninsula during the major explosive and effusive eruption of 1914. Activity at the Kitadake summit cone ended about 4,850 years ago, after which eruptions took place at Minamidake. Frequent eruptions since the 8th century have deposited ash on the city of Kagoshima, located across Kagoshima Bay only 8 km from the summit. The largest recorded eruption took place during 1471-76.
Information Contacts: JMA.
Akan
Japan
43.384°N, 144.013°E; summit elev. 1499 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Summit-area seismic swarm
Earthquake activity began increasing on 22 September, peaking on 2 October with 146 recorded events (figure 4), then gradually decreased to a background of 1/day by 9 October. No shocks were felt. Epicenters were presumed to be at or near the active (Ponmachineshiri) crater. Seismicity at the volcano has been low since March 1991.
Geologic Background. Akan is a 13 x 24 km caldera located immediately SW of Kussharo caldera. The elongated, irregular outline of the caldera rim reflects its incremental formation during major explosive eruptions from the early to mid-Pleistocene. Growth of four post-caldera stratovolcanoes, three at the SW end of the caldera and the other at the NE side, has restricted the size of the caldera lake. Conical Oakandake was frequently active during the Holocene. The 1-km-wide Nakamachineshiri crater of Meakandake was formed during a major pumice-and-scoria eruption about 13,500 years ago. Within the Akan volcanic complex, only the Meakandake group, east of Lake Akan, has been historically active, producing mild phreatic eruptions since the beginning of the 19th century. Meakandake is composed of nine overlapping cones. The main cone of Meakandake proper has a triple crater at its summit. Historical eruptions at Meakandake have consisted of minor phreatic explosions, but four major magmatic eruptions including pyroclastic flows have occurred during the Holocene.
Information Contacts: JMA.
Arenal (Costa Rica) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Arenal
Costa Rica
10.463°N, 84.703°W; summit elev. 1670 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Lava production and Strombolian activity continue
Lava production, explosive tephra ejection, and gas emission continued from the summit area. The lava flow that had been advancing down the WSW flank stopped at 615 m elevation around the end of August and the beginning of September. Advance of the front appeared to have halted because of an interruption of the flow at ~1,100 m elevation, where overflows of block lava occurred from both sides of the lava channel. A flow that had begun to emerge in mid-August continued its advance toward the SW, reaching 720 m elevation and covering a grassy area. Overflows from the central part of this flow produced small avalanches. Strombolian explosions remained sporadic, but became more vigorous after 28 September, sometimes rattling windows in La Fortuna, ~6.5 km NE of the summit, and at an ICE facility in Sangregado, 7 km to the NW. Ash columns rose >1 km from Crater C, dropping ash on the flanks (see table 5), and blocks and bombs fell to 1,000 m elevation. Occasional pyroclastic flows were generated, extending to elevations of 1,300 m on the NE flank and 1,200 m on the N and S flanks. Vigorous fumarolic activity continued in the summit area. Little change was detected in volcanic seismicity, with an average of 25 events/day, peaking at 55 on 29 September.
Geologic Background. Conical Volcán Arenal is the youngest stratovolcano in Costa Rica and one of its most active. The 1670-m-high andesitic volcano towers above the eastern shores of Lake Arenal, which has been enlarged by a hydroelectric project. Arenal lies along a volcanic chain that has migrated to the NW from the late-Pleistocene Los Perdidos lava domes through the Pleistocene-to-Holocene Chato volcano, which contains a 500-m-wide, lake-filled summit crater. The earliest known eruptions of Arenal took place about 7000 years ago, and it was active concurrently with Cerro Chato until the activity of Chato ended about 3500 years ago. Growth of Arenal has been characterized by periodic major explosive eruptions at several-hundred-year intervals and periods of lava effusion that armor the cone. An eruptive period that began with a major explosive eruption in 1968 ended in December 2010; continuous explosive activity accompanied by slow lava effusion and the occasional emission of pyroclastic flows characterized the eruption from vents at the summit and on the upper western flank.
Information Contacts: G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE; E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI.
Asosan
Japan
32.8849°N, 131.085°E; summit elev. 1592 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Blocks ejected by explosive episode
An eruption from Crater 1 ejected blocks at 1223 on 8 September, the first such activity since a similar episode on 30 June-1 July. Another eruption at 1627 on 29 September scattered blocks 800 m SE and ejected a steam plume 2,000 m high. The number of blocks and the distance they fell from the crater were greater than for the eruptions of 8 September and 1 July. Eruption-tremor amplitude was 30.2 and 30.4 µm, respectively, for the September eruptive pisodes.
Steam was steadily emitted to a few hundred meters throughout September, and volcanic-tremor frequency was low. No anomalies in steam emission or tremor frequency were noted either before or after the eruptions. However, continuous-tremor amplitude increased for two days after the 8 September eruption. Weak ejections of mud, blocks, and water continued.
An area within 1 km of the crater has been closed to tourists since 24 August, and no damage was caused by the eruptions. Similar activity has continued through 14 October, but there have been no additional eruptions.
Geologic Background. The 24-km-wide Asosan caldera was formed during four major explosive eruptions from 300,000 to 90,000 years ago. These produced voluminous pyroclastic flows that covered much of Kyushu. The last of these, the Aso-4 eruption, produced more than 600 km3 of airfall tephra and pyroclastic-flow deposits. A group of 17 central cones was constructed in the middle of the caldera, one of which, Nakadake, is one of Japan's most active volcanoes. It was the location of Japan's first documented historical eruption in 553 CE. The Nakadake complex has remained active throughout the Holocene. Several other cones have been active during the Holocene, including the Kometsuka scoria cone as recently as about 210 CE. Historical eruptions have largely consisted of basaltic to basaltic-andesite ash emission with periodic strombolian and phreatomagmatic activity. The summit crater of Nakadake is accessible by toll road and cable car, and is one of Kyushu's most popular tourist destinations.
Information Contacts: JMA.
El Chichon (Mexico) — September 1992 Cite this Report
El Chichon
Mexico
17.3602°N, 93.2297°W; summit elev. 1150 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Occasional seismicity; lake less acidic
The following reports the results of fieldwork on 5-11 August. "Reports of strange noises and vibrations in the small town of Coapilla, 21 km S of El Chichón, caused some concern among the population, since rumors that an eruption should be expected on the 10th anniversary of the 1982 catastrophic eruptions were spreading across Chiapas state. To help the local government to dismiss (or confirm) those rumors, a special trip was made to deploy three portable seismic stations around the volcano, and to obtain more samples of the crater-lake water. The seismic stations were located in Coapilla, Chapultenango (11 km ESE of the summit), and Ostuacán (12 km NW). Due to local ground noise, only the Chapultenango station could be set at a relatively high gain. During the seismic recording, the volcano was visited to obtain samples. On 8 August at 0922, while two of the geologists (J.L.M. and M.A.C.E.) were collecting rock samples on the rim of the outer crater, a small earthquake was detected by the Chapultenango station. At that time, an impulsive shake, accompanied by an explosion-like sound, was reported by the geologists at the crater rim. Although they could not look into the crater from the outer rim, they observed no signs of explosion, dust, or increased fumarolic activity. The nature of this event is difficult to interpret, since only one station detected it, but the waveform is similar to some explosion earthquakes recorded elsewhere.
"The Coapilla noises and vibrations were found to be produced by the town's water-piping net.
"The water sample (taken about 1 hour before the seismic event) shows a composition similar to other recent samples. The overall trend in the last few years is toward an increase in pH and a decrease in concentration of major species."
Geologic Background. El Chichón is a small trachyandesitic tuff cone and lava dome complex in an isolated part of the Chiapas region in SE México. Prior to 1982, this relatively unknown volcano was heavily forested and of no greater height than adjacent non-volcanic peaks. The largest dome, the former summit of the volcano, was constructed within a 1.6 x 2 km summit crater created about 220,000 years ago. Two other large craters are located on the SW and SE flanks; a lava dome fills the SW crater, and an older dome is located on the NW flank. More than ten large explosive eruptions have occurred since the mid-Holocene. The powerful 1982 explosive eruptions of high-sulfur, anhydrite-bearing magma destroyed the summit lava dome and were accompanied by pyroclastic flows and surges that devastated an area extending about 8 km around the volcano. The eruptions created a new 1-km-wide, 300-m-deep crater that now contains an acidic crater lake.
Information Contacts: S. De la Cruz-Reyna, Z. Jiménez, J.M. Espíndola, and M.A. Armienta, UNAM; Marco A. Cuesta Escobar, Raul García Santiago, Edipson Pastrana Vázquez, and Silvia Ramos Hernández, Coordinación de Investigación, Consejo Estatal de Fomento a la Investigación y Difusión de la Cultura, Chiapas, México; J.L. Macías, State Univ of New York, Buffalo, NY.
Erta Ale (Ethiopia) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Erta Ale
Ethiopia
13.601°N, 40.666°E; summit elev. 585 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Lava lake in one of two summit-caldera craters; recent lava overflows of caldera rim
The [September] flight covered the Afar region from the Alebbagu and Hayli Gubbi volcanoes, to lakes Ba Kili and Karum. The N half of Erta Ale's elliptical caldera included two craters. The larger, ~300 m in diameter, was in the northernmost part of the caldera. Two strong fumaroles were active near its S rim, but no lava lake was evident. Two dark fresh-looking lava flows had originated from this crater; one had flowed over the caldera rim to the NNE, the other, to the SW, was confined by the caldera's W wall. A lava lake was observed in the second of the two craters, near the middle of the caldera. The crater was ~100 m in diameter and 80 m deep. The lava lake occupied ~1/3 of the crater's SW bottom. Fountaining and bright-red incandescence were clearly visible. Lava from the second crater had flowed over the S part of the caldera rim.
Geologic Background. The Erta Ale basaltic shield volcano in Ethiopia has a 50-km-wide edifice that rises more than 600 m from below sea level in the Danakil depression. The volcano includes a 0.7 x 1.6 km summit crater hosting steep-sided pit craters. Another larger 1.8 x 3.1 km wide depression elongated parallel to the trend of the Erta Ale range is located SE of the summit and is bounded by curvilinear fault scarps on the SE side. Basaltic lava flows from these fissures have poured into the caldera and locally overflowed its rim. The summit caldera usually also holds at least one long-term lava lake that has been active since at least 1967, and possibly since 1906. Recent fissure eruptions have occurred on the N flank.
Information Contacts: P. Vetsch, SVG, Switzerland; L. Cantamessa, Géo-découverte, Switzerland; G. Assefa and L. Asfaw, Addis Abeba Univ.
Etna
Italy
37.748°N, 14.999°E; summit elev. 3357 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Lava flows from tube system remain within 1991-92 lava field
The SE-flank fissure eruption ... continued relatively unchanged in September and early October 1992. Gas emission from the upper part of the fissure was similar to previous months, varying with weather conditions. Lava continued to flow through a complex tube system, emerging from ephemeral vents at frequently changing locations. The resulting lava flows were generally modest-sized, advancing only a few hundred meters over the pre-existing lava field. This pattern of activity changed only when a substantial increase in the amount of lava moving through the main tube caused an overflow through a skylight. On 3 October at about 1830, lava began to emerge from a skylight at 2,150 m altitude, preceded by vigorous emission of white vapor. The overflow remained active on 8 October, and lava had advanced about 1 km. A similar episode occurred from the same location in early September. During 8 October fieldwork, numerous ephemeral vents were also active. Three were in the area of May's artificial lava diversion around 2,000 m altitude, three at ~ 1,800 m elevation (around Serra Pirciata), and 3-4 others near 1,700 m asl. Flows from the ephemeral vents remained modest in size, did not advance beyond 1,650 m altitude, and stayed within the Valle del Bove. Total lava volume from 300 days of activity was estimated at around 210 x 106 m3.
Gas continued to emerge from two small vents on the floor of the central craters, at ~ 100 m depth. Gas emission generally occurred under pressure from the W crater (Bocca Nuova). A small vent on the S edge of Southeast Crater continued to emit gas. Northeast Crater remained obstructed by debris, with landslides still occurring in its N and S parts.
SO2 emission, measured by COSPEC, continued to increase. During the first 10 days of October, values exceeded 10,000 t/d, twice Etna's average SO2 flux.
Seismicity remained at low energy between 11 September and 13 October. About 230 microearthquakes were recorded, centered mainly in the summit area. The largest (M 3.0) occurred on 16 September at 0650 and was felt in nearby towns. On 27 September, a brief sequence of 7 events occurred on the W flank. The strongest shock (M 3.7), at 1255, was felt to ~ 70 km away (in the Siracusa area). Tremor has been nearly absent.
Geologic Background. Mount Etna, towering above Catania on the island of Sicily, has one of the world's longest documented records of volcanism, dating back to 1500 BCE. Historical lava flows of basaltic composition cover much of the surface of this massive volcano, whose edifice is the highest and most voluminous in Italy. The Mongibello stratovolcano, truncated by several small calderas, was constructed during the late Pleistocene and Holocene over an older shield volcano. The most prominent morphological feature of Etna is the Valle del Bove, a 5 x 10 km caldera open to the east. Two styles of eruptive activity typically occur, sometimes simultaneously. Persistent explosive eruptions, sometimes with minor lava emissions, take place from one or more summit craters. Flank vents, typically with higher effusion rates, are less frequently active and originate from fissures that open progressively downward from near the summit (usually accompanied by Strombolian eruptions at the upper end). Cinder cones are commonly constructed over the vents of lower-flank lava flows. Lava flows extend to the foot of the volcano on all sides and have reached the sea over a broad area on the SE flank.
Information Contacts: R. Romano and T. Caltabiano, IIV; P. Carveni, M. Grasso, and C. Monaco, Univ di Catania; G. Luongo, OV.
Piton de la Fournaise (France) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Piton de la Fournaise
France
21.244°S, 55.708°E; summit elev. 2632 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Summit fissure eruption follows 7 months of seismicity
An eruption began on 27 August after 7 months of increased seismicity below the summit crater and the E flank of the summit cone. Up to 19 earthquakes/day were recorded during the days before the eruption (figure 31). Focal depths were from about sea level to 1.5 km altitude . . . . (figure 32).
Immediate eruption precursors - seismicity. A shock at 1054 on 27 August marked the onset of the pre-eruption seismic crisis. About 30 events of up to M 1.3 were detected between then and the swarm's strongest shock (M 2.2) at 1105. More than 100 seismic events of M >1.3 followed until 1150, when generalized tremor indicated the start of the eruption. Hypocenters were beneath the E part of the Dolomieu Crater between the summit and sea level. Geologists interpreted the seismic pattern as resulting from a shallow magma pocket feeding an intrusion moving up towards the Dolomieu area.
Immediate eruption precursors - deformation. Rapid changes in vertical ground deformation began less than an hour before the eruption at electronic tiltmeters between the Dolomieu crater rim and sites 8 and 9 km away. The maximum radial component of 1,300 µrad was recorded on the SE side of the crater (station DOL, figure 33). Less deformation (<=20 µrad, tangential) was detected 1.5-2 km away, and at 8 and 9 km the deformation was 0.8 µrad (radial) and 7 µrad (tangential), respectively. At stations around the crater rim, tilt values (3, 10, and 12 µrad/minute at BOR, SOU, and DOL, respectively) and directions from 1111 to 1124 indicated inflation centers and possible intrusion below the SW part of the crater (figure 33). Tilt values increased between 1125 and 1133 to 5, 10, and 30 µrad/minute, respectively, with NW tilts at BOR and SOU, and a SE tilt at DOL. This pattern suggested a general inflation of Dolomieu, but inflation centers could not be identified. The period 1134-1139 was similar, with the highest tilt at DOL. During 1140-1145, tilt vectors rotated at SOU and BOR while the radial component at DOL inverted. This period is interpreted by geologists as a deflation episode. Deformation stopped after 1145 at the BOR and SOU stations, but continued until 1155 at DOL.
Eruptive activity. The eruption began at 1150 from a fissure within Dolomieu crater that produced lava fountains ~40 m high and a small basaltic lava flow. The fissure propagated rapidly southward, crossed the SW rim, and produced a small flank flow (flow 1; figure 34). Four additional vents opened at 1211, 1214, 1216, and 1221, producing lava flows 2-5. The first four flows halted within 3 hours, but high lava fountains (>40 m) at vent 5, SE of Dolomieu crater, quickly built a cone, named Zoé. The high velocity of flow 5 and strong degassing were noted 3 hours after the start of the eruption. Geologists from the OVPDLF reported 40-m lava fountains and intense SO2-rich degassing on 28 August. Flow velocity at the foot of the cone was estimated at 4 m/s, suggesting a mean outflow rate of ~20 m3/s. Geologists estimated that Zoé crater produced 5 x 106 m3 of lava, covering ~1 x 106 m2. Flows 1-4 included an additional 5 x 105 m3 of aphyric basalt. Tremor decreased rapidly and had reached low levels by mid-September. Tremor ceased on 23 September after ~20 hours of strong seismic activity related to the collapse of the main crater and surface feeding structures. Outflow was very weak during the eruption's last days, and the total volume of lava remained at 5.5 x 106 m3.
Geologic Background. Piton de la Fournaise is a massive basaltic shield volcano on the French island of Réunion in the western Indian Ocean. Much of its more than 530,000-year history overlapped with eruptions of the deeply dissected Piton des Neiges shield volcano to the NW. Three scarps formed at about 250,000, 65,000, and less than 5,000 years ago by progressive eastward slumping, leaving caldera-sized embayments open to the E and SE. Numerous pyroclastic cones are present on the floor of the scarps and their outer flanks. Most recorded eruptions have originated from the summit and flanks of Dolomieu, a 400-m-high lava shield that has grown within the youngest scarp, which is about 9 km wide and about 13 km from the western wall to the ocean on the E side. More than 150 eruptions, most of which have produced fluid basaltic lava flows, have occurred since the 17th century. Only six eruptions, in 1708, 1774, 1776, 1800, 1977, and 1986, have originated from fissures outside the scarps.
Information Contacts: J. Toutain, P. Kowalski, P. Labazuy, P. Taochy, A. Tessier, and A. Pham, OVPDLF; J-L. Cheminée, P. Blum, J. Zlotnicki, A. Hirn, and J. Lepine, IPGP.
Galeras (Colombia) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Galeras
Colombia
1.22°N, 77.37°W; summit elev. 4276 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Seismicity declines; little deformation
High-frequency seismicity decreased in September compared to August. Only ten events occurred W of the crater at depths <6 km, of which seven were <1 km. Magnitudes varied between 0.4 and 1.7. A swarm of small earthquakes registered on 15 September had characteristics similar to those observed before the 16 July eruption. There were no significant deep tremor episodes. Few long-period events were recorded, but they were more common during the first 2 weeks of the month. COSPEC measurements of SO2 flux in September varied between 50 and 450 t/d, similar to August values. The electronic tiltmeter [at Crater Station] was generally stable tangentially, with a slight deflation (-3.9 µrad), and had fluctuating radial values with a cumulative inflation (+5.9 µrad). The [Peladitos station] was also relatively stable, with changes of -3.8 and +9.0 µrad for the tangential and radial components, respectively.
Geologic Background. Galeras, a stratovolcano with a large breached caldera located immediately west of the city of Pasto, is one of Colombia's most frequently active volcanoes. The dominantly andesitic complex has been active for more than 1 million years, and two major caldera collapse eruptions took place during the late Pleistocene. Long-term extensive hydrothermal alteration has contributed to large-scale edifice collapse on at least three occasions, producing debris avalanches that swept to the west and left a large open caldera inside which the modern cone has been constructed. Major explosive eruptions since the mid-Holocene have produced widespread tephra deposits and pyroclastic flows that swept all but the southern flanks. A central cone slightly lower than the caldera rim has been the site of numerous small-to-moderate eruptions since the time of the Spanish conquistadors.
Information Contacts: M. Calvache, INGEOMINAS - Observatorio Vulcanológico del Sur.
Irazu (Costa Rica) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Irazu
Costa Rica
9.979°N, 83.852°W; summit elev. 3436 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Continued fumarolic activity
Subaqueous fumaroles remained vigorous on the NE side of the dark-green crater lake, and continued to be active in its SE part. Only tenuous degassing was evident on the fans N of the lake. Lake level rose and fell with variations in rainfall. Landsliding of the N and SW walls continued to occur. UNA seismic station IRZ2, 5 km WSW of the main crater, recorded 51 low-frequency events in September.
Geologic Background. The massive Irazú volcano in Costa Rica, immediately E of the capital city of San José, covers an area of 500 km2 and is vegetated to within a few hundred meters of its broad summit crater complex. At least 10 satellitic cones are located on its S flank. No lava effusion is known since the eruption of the Cervantes lava flows from S-flank vents about 14,000 years ago, and all known Holocene eruptions have been explosive. The focus of eruptions at the summit crater complex has migrated to the W towards the main crater, which contains a small lake. The first well-documented eruption occurred in 1723, and frequent explosive eruptions have occurred since. Ashfall from the last major eruption during 1963-65 caused significant disruption to San José and surrounding areas. Phreatic activity reported in 1994 may have been a landslide event from the fumarolic area on the NW summit (Fallas et al., 2018).
Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI; G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE.
Kavachi (Solomon Islands) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Kavachi
Solomon Islands
8.991°S, 157.979°E; summit elev. -20 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Bathymetric survey reveals gas emission
A bathymetric survey in the vicinity of Kavachi volcano was carried out on 11 August by the HMNZS Tui. The ship made three parallel transits, ~1,200 m apart, over the summit of the unnamed seamount ~7 km NW of Kavachi. The summit is mostly flat, with a depth of at least 130 m found on each pass. The transit farthest NE showed a shallow and a deep crater on the tracing of the 12 kHz echo sounder. The 44-kHz echo sounder showed two small plumes rising to mid-water depth on either side of the smaller crater.
Near Kavachi itself, inflatable boats with hand-held echo sounders and portable GPS receivers were used to determine spot water-depths. A sulfur smell and a patch of milk-colored water 20 m in diameter were reported by boat crews near the shallowest (20 m) depth location (8.994°S, 157.973°E). Several other similar patches were observed within 150 m of this point, in water 20-30 m deep.
Geologic Background. Named for a sea-god of the Gatokae and Vangunu peoples, Kavachi is located in the Solomon Islands south of Vangunu Island. Sometimes referred to as Rejo te Kvachi ("Kavachi's Oven"), this shallow submarine basaltic-to-andesitic volcano has produced ephemeral islands up to 1 km long many times since its first recorded eruption during 1939. Residents of the nearby islands of Vanguna and Nggatokae (Gatokae) reported "fire on the water" prior to 1939, a possible reference to earlier eruptions. The roughly conical edifice rises from water depths of 1.1-1.2 km on the north and greater depths to the SE. Frequent shallow submarine and occasional subaerial eruptions produce phreatomagmatic explosions that eject steam, ash, and incandescent bombs. On a number of occasions lava flows were observed on the ephemeral islands.
Information Contacts: L. Hall, Defence Scientific Establishment, and Lt. Cdr. G. Craig, HMNZSTui, Auckland Naval Base, New Zealand.
Kilauea (United States) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Kilauea
United States
19.421°N, 155.287°W; summit elev. 1222 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
New vent opens after M 4.5 earthquake
The . . . E-51 vent was intermittently active during September. Flows headed S and E, reaching the edge of the lava field by 6 September and 660 m (2,170 ft) elevation on 8 September. Flows stagnated the following day when the eruption paused. The vent reactivated 12 September when lava broke out of the tube ~1 km from the vent, forming sluggish channelized pahoehoe flows that advanced S from the shield complex, reaching the SW edge of the flow field and slowly burning vegetation in the National Park (figure 85). The eruption paused 27 September and activity at the vent area declined the next day as the E-51 spatter cones stopped glowing, lava in the skylights slowed, and flows stagnated.
The Pu`u `O`o lava lake remained active all month, its surface fluctuating between 70 and 51 m below the crater rim. The level of lava in Pu`u `O`o was low before and during the pauses, rising immediately before renewed activity at the vent. There was steady circulation from the W to the SE edge of the lake.
Tremor increased to 3x background 3-6 September, began a gradual decline on 7 September, the day before the eruption paused, then increased again to 3x background as the eruption resumed on 12 September (17:8). Eruption tremor remained steady until the eruption paused again in late September. Shallow, long-period (1-3 Hz) seismicity peaked at >140 events on 7 September.
Episode 52 (E-52). A M 4.5 earthquake occurred at about 2000 on 2 October [but see 14:10] on the S flank, W of Royal Gardens subdivision, at ~6.5 km depth. An anomalous glow, reported to the Civil Defense authorities soon after the shock, marked a new eruptive fissure on the S flank of Pu`u `O`o and the beginning of E-52. Seismic tremor and summit tilt . . . did not show any significant changes until about 0300 on 3 October, when tremor amplitude recorded near Pu`u `O`o increased dramatically and the summit region began to subside as magma was withdrawn and erupted from the new fissure. By 1000, helicopter pilots reported that a new aa flow had advanced ~3 km and was burning the forest just E of the E-51 lava. The E-51 vents, which had restarted during the late afternoon of 2 October, stopped as the new E-52 vents became active. Late on 3 October, the E-51 vents slowly started up again, and by early the next afternoon the lava output from the E-52 vent had decreased slightly as emission from the E-51 vents increased. Lava from both vents was ponding just S of Pu`u `O`o as of 5 October.
Geologic Background. Kilauea overlaps the E flank of the massive Mauna Loa shield volcano in the island of Hawaii. Eruptions are prominent in Polynesian legends; written documentation since 1820 records frequent summit and flank lava flow eruptions interspersed with periods of long-term lava lake activity at Halemaumau crater in the summit caldera until 1924. The 3 x 5 km caldera was formed in several stages about 1,500 years ago and during the 18th century; eruptions have also originated from the lengthy East and Southwest rift zones, which extend to the ocean in both directions. About 90% of the surface of the basaltic shield volcano is formed of lava flows less than about 1,100 years old; 70% of the surface is younger than 600 years. The long-term eruption from the East rift zone between 1983 and 2018 produced lava flows covering more than 100 km2, destroyed hundreds of houses, and added new coastline.
Information Contacts: T. Mattox, M. Mangan, and P. Okubo, HVO.
Kozushima (Japan) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Kozushima
Japan
34.219°N, 139.153°E; summit elev. 572 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Weak earthquake swarm
A weak earthquake swarm occurred 5 km W of the island on 1 September. Maximum magnitude was 2.1. No surface activity was evident on the island or in the sea.
Geologic Background. A cluster of rhyolitic lava domes and associated pyroclastic deposits form the 4 x 6 km island of Kozushima in the northern Izu Islands. The island is the exposed summit of a larger submarine edifice more than 20 km long that lies along the Zenisu Ridge, one of several en-echelon ridges oriented NE-SW, transverse to the trend of the northern Izu arc. The youngest and largest of the 18 lava domes, Tenjosan, occupies the central portion of the island. Most of the older domes, some of which are Holocene in age, flank Tenjosan to the north, although late-Pleistocene domes are also found at the southern end of the island. A lava flow may have reached the sea during an eruption in 832 CE. The Tenjosan dome was formed during a major eruption in 838 CE that also produced pyroclastic flows and surges. Earthquake swarms took place during the 20th century.
Information Contacts: JMA.
Langila (Papua New Guinea) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Langila
Papua New Guinea
5.525°S, 148.42°E; summit elev. 1330 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Ash emission and weak glow
"A moderate level of activity continued . . . in September. Activity at Crater 2 consisted of emission of white-to-grey vapour-and-ash clouds, occasionally with blue vapour. The emissions were accompanied by weak roaring noises. Weak night glow over the crater was seen 1-6 and 27 September. Emissions from Crater 3 were similar to those of Crater 2. Occasional weak explosions started on 6 September and continued until mid-September. No night glow was observed from the crater. Seismicity remained low throughout the month."
Geologic Background. Langila, one of the most active volcanoes of New Britain, consists of a group of four small overlapping composite basaltic-andesitic cones on the lower E flank of the extinct Talawe volcano in the Cape Gloucester area of NW New Britain. A rectangular, 2.5-km-long crater is breached widely to the SE; Langila was constructed NE of the breached crater of Talawe. An extensive lava field reaches the coast on the N and NE sides of Langila. Frequent mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded since the 19th century from three active craters at the summit. The youngest and smallest crater (no. 3 crater) was formed in 1960 and has a diameter of 150 m.
Information Contacts: B. Talai and C. McKee, RVO.
Ol Doinyo Lengai (Tanzania) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Ol Doinyo Lengai
Tanzania
2.764°S, 35.914°E; summit elev. 2962 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Vigorous summit-crater lava production
Increased activity was monitored by A.P. Jones, M. Genge, and A. Church over a 24-hour period on 9-10 September. A central vent 10 m high continuously emitted highly fluid carbonatitic lava at an estimated 1-2 m³/s. The emission rate increased periodically every 4-5 hours to ~5-8 m³/s for 20-40 minutes, and then returned to 1-2 m³/s. The lava spread over much of the 500-m crater floor as thin flows and through tubes. Most active periods included additional fumarolic activity on the N-crater floor and the appearance of small surface cones. Vegetation at the S end of the crater had been burned by a recent 1-2 m-thick flow and an associated 3 m of bedded lapilli tuff. Fracturing of recent flows, block faulting, and extensive lava tubes suggest the possible formation of a new shallow lava lake with remelting of earlier flows. The crater floor has risen to 15-20 m below the hydrothermally weakened N rim. At the high extrusion rates observed, Jones noted that collapse of the retaining crater wall could occur within 100-300 days.
A 22 September overflight by L. Cantamessa showed some new grayish flows. The flows had moved N from the T20 hornito.
Geologic Background. The symmetrical Ol Doinyo Lengai is the only volcano known to have erupted carbonatite tephras and lavas in historical time. The prominent stratovolcano, known to the Maasai as "The Mountain of God," rises abruptly above the broad plain south of Lake Natron in the Gregory Rift Valley. The cone-building stage ended about 15,000 years ago and was followed by periodic ejection of natrocarbonatitic and nephelinite tephra during the Holocene. Historical eruptions have consisted of smaller tephra ejections and emission of numerous natrocarbonatitic lava flows on the floor of the summit crater and occasionally down the upper flanks. The depth and morphology of the northern crater have changed dramatically during the course of historical eruptions, ranging from steep crater walls about 200 m deep in the mid-20th century to shallow platforms mostly filling the crater. Long-term lava effusion in the summit crater beginning in 1983 had by the turn of the century mostly filled the northern crater; by late 1998 lava had begun overflowing the crater rim.
Information Contacts: A. Jones, Univ College London; P. Vetsch, SVG, Switzerland; L. Cantamessa, Géo-découverte, Switzerland.
Manam (Papua New Guinea) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Manam
Papua New Guinea
4.08°S, 145.037°E; summit elev. 1807 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Strong explosions; pyroclastic and lava flows
"Manam continued erupting in September, with a paroxysmal phase of activity from Main Crater at mid-month. Following the paroxysmal eruption from Southern Crater on 31 August (BGVN 17:08), its activity subsided to a low level in early September. Emissions consisted of white and blue vapours at low to moderate rates.
"Southern Crater emissions changed on 13 September to forceful emissions of thick dark-grey ash clouds and incandescent lava fragments. This activity continued on 14 September, then subsided, and there was a return to emission of white and blue vapours. The stronger visible activity was accompanied by a rise in seismicity.
"Main Crater, which had been inactive since mid-June, began to show signs of re-awakening on 11 September when forceful emissions of thick white vapour clouds were observed. On 15 September, bright glow was observed over Main Crater, and at 0500 on 16 September, above the atmospheric cloud-cover, a high eruption column was seen, indicating that a paroxsymal eruption was in progress. The ash column rose several kilometers above the crater before being blown to the NW. Reports from inhabitants on the N side of the island indicate generation of small pyroclastic flows followed later by lava extrusion into the NE valley. The new lava covered a substantial portion of the April-June lava flows and reached to within 2 km of the coast (figure 4). At night on 16 September, weak-to-bright glow was observed, punctuated by intermittent projection of incandescent lava fragments to 50 m above the crater. Lava effusion ceased by 17 September.
"A somewhat weaker phase of activity from Main Crater took place on 20 September, starting at about 1845 and ending at about 2130. Seismic activity showed a corresponding increase during this period. Dense, dark, ash clouds were released and rose several kilometers above the crater. Incandescent lava fragments within the eruption column reached 500-700 m above the crater, but most fell into the crater. For the remainder of the month, Main Crater activity was moderate, with emissions of thick white vapour and occasional grey ash clouds. Weak glow above the crater continued to be observed until the end of the month. Light ashfalls took place intermittently on the W flank throughout the month.
"Seismicity continued to consist of low-frequency events and sub-continuous tremor. Over the course of the month seismicity showed a number of fluctuations but the general trend was one of increased amplitude. Measurements from water-tube tiltmeters . . . showed a 4 µrad deflation to mid-September following the paroxysmal eruption of 31 August. By the end of September the volcano had re-inflated by 1 µrad.
"Further eruptive activity took place in October. During a paroxysmal eruption from Southern Crater on 1 October, pyroclastic flows descended the SW and SE valleys and moderate-to-heavy scoria-fall took place on the W side of the island. The pyroclastic flows were contained within the valleys and did not cause any damage. The scoria-fall reportedly damaged some food gardens. On 10 October, voluminous lava effusion from Main Crater resulted in lava flowing into the sea at two points in the NE Valley. Another phase of strong lava effusion occurred on 15 October. Part of the lava flow overwhelmed three houses in a village near the edge of the NE valley and entered the sea.
"Yet another effusive phase from Main Crater was reported on 19 October. The volume of lava erupted may have been smaller than the amounts erupted on 10 and 15 October. The emplacement of pyroclastic flows and lava flows in the main valleys at Manam has clearly demonstrated the high hazard potential of these parts of the volcano. Recommendations have been made for the evacuation of settlements near the SW and NE valleys. It is not anticipated that the entire population (6,000 residents) of Manam will need to be evacuated."
Geologic Background. The 10-km-wide island of Manam, lying 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea, is one of the country's most active volcanoes. Four large radial valleys extend from the unvegetated summit of the conical basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano to its lower flanks. These valleys channel lava flows and pyroclastic avalanches that have sometimes reached the coast. Five small satellitic centers are located near the island's shoreline on the northern, southern, and western sides. Two summit craters are present; both are active, although most observed eruptions have originated from the southern crater, concentrating eruptive products during much of the past century into the SE valley. Frequent eruptions, typically of mild-to-moderate scale, have been recorded since 1616. Occasional larger eruptions have produced pyroclastic flows and lava flows that reached flat-lying coastal areas and entered the sea, sometimes impacting populated areas.
Information Contacts: B. Talai and C. McKee, RVO.
Niijima (Japan) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Niijima
Japan
34.397°N, 139.27°E; summit elev. 432 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Two weak seismic swarms
Two weak earthquake swarms occurred 5 km WSW and NW of the island on 16 and 22 September. Maximum magnitudes were 3.5 and 3.1, respectively. No ocean-surface anomalies were observed.
Geologic Background. The elongated island of Niijima, SSW of Oshima, is 11 km long and only 2.5 km wide. Eight low rhyolitic lava domes are clustered in two groups at the northern and southern ends of the island, separated by an area of flat-topped domes and a low isthmus of pyroclastic deposits. The Mukaiyama complex on the south and the Atchiyama lava dome on the north were formed during eruptions in the 9th century CE, the last known activity. Shikineyama and Zinaito domes form small islands immediately to the SW and W, respectively, during earlier stages of volcanism. Earthquake swarms occurred during the 20th century.
Information Contacts: JMA.
Nyamulagira (DR Congo) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Nyamulagira
DR Congo
1.408°S, 29.2°E; summit elev. 3058 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Continued lava production from fissure vent
Activity continued in September with intermittent emission of lava and solid ejecta from Vent 20 (figure 12) . . . . During fieldwork on 11 September, lava fountaining was observed every 10-13 minutes. Lava flowed in a channel as much as 6-7 km N. Its front was advancing at 2-3 km/h on 12 September. Microtremor recorded at a nearby seismic station (Katale) had declined significantly.
[Continuous liquid lava extrusion continued until 24 November 1992. Short-lived lava fountaining at 5-10 day intervals took place at a fresh, previously inactive fissure, until 8 February 1993 (Zana and others, 1993; see 19:06).]
Geologic Background. Africa's most active volcano, Nyamulagira (also known as Nyamuragira), is a massive high-potassium basaltic shield about 25 km N of Lake Kivu and 13 km NNW of the steep-sided Nyiragongo volcano. The summit is truncated by a small 2 x 2.3 km caldera that has walls up to about 100 m high. Documented eruptions have occurred within the summit caldera, as well as from the numerous flank fissures and cinder cones. A lava lake in the summit crater, active since at least 1921, drained in 1938, at the time of a major flank eruption. Recent lava flows extend down the flanks more than 30 km from the summit as far as Lake Kivu; extensive lava flows from this volcano have covered 1,500 km2 of the western branch of the East African Rift.
Information Contacts: N. Zana, CRSN, Bukavu.
Pinatubo (Philippines) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Pinatubo
Philippines
15.13°N, 120.35°E; summit elev. 1486 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Lava-dome growth; pyroclastic-flow deposits spawn destructive lahars and secondary explosions
The following is from a report by PHIVOLCS. The powerful explosive eruption of June 1991 deposited about 9 km3 of material, forming a caldera about 2 km in diameter and 650 m deep. Rain from the succeeding wet season partially filled the caldera, forming a shallow lake of about 1 km2 (figure 26).
Summit activity and seismicity, 1 July-15 October 1992. Pinatubo showed signs of renewed activity beginning in early July 1992, when low-frequency earthquakes and tremor, indicating movement of magma to shallower levels beneath the caldera, increased and began to dominate the seismic records. By 9 July, phreatic explosions near the center of the caldera lake had built an ash cone 100 m in diameter that extended 5 m above the lake surface. Lava extrusion then began, and by 14 July, a dome 100 m across and 10 m high had grown near the center of the ash cone, which had widened to around 200 m. COSPEC measurements during the 2nd week in July recorded SO2 emission rates of 150-600 t/d. By 22 July, the lava dome had grown to 200-250 m in diameter and 50 m high.
Another increase in the number of low-frequency earthquakes was recorded 6-9 August (figure 27), coinciding with a decrease in the SO2 emission rate to around 250 t/d, from 800-900 t/d during the last week in July and the beginning of August. Similar patterns were noted several days before the 1991 explosive eruptions (although the SO2 flux was about 3-5 times higher in 1991), probably because rising magma clogged the path of escaping volcanic gases. Because of these similarities, on 9 August PHIVOLCS announced the possibility that an explosive eruption might occur within a week. By 11 August, the dome had reached 300 m in N-S dimension and approximately 100 m height. Part of the crater floor on the N side of the dome was uplifted, possibly indicating that most of the dome-building activity was concentrated there. The activity did not lead to an explosive eruption, and the unrest seemed to subside 11-16 August as the number of earthquakes decreased. SO2 emission rates ranged from 650 to 1150 t/d 13-16 August, but decreased again to around 220 t/d by 23 August.
Seismic activity increased again in late August, and has continued since then at a high level. The seismograph (CRAZ) installed on the caldera's N rim on 7 August has recorded at least 200 earthquakes/day, and daily counts reached as many as 1,100 (during the second week in October). Seismic records were dominated by low-frequency events. Because of the sustained high level of seismicity, the possibility of explosive eruptions persists.
Dome growth has occurred intermittently. By 26 August, the caldera floor on the E side of the dome was uplifted, and dome-building activity shifted to that side. The E-W dimension of the dome was about 340 m by 2 September. Talus deposition from heavy rains at the end of August has caused encroachment of the E shore of the lake toward the dome (figure 26). Continued rains during the first two weeks in September caused further encroachment of the E shoreline, filling the E part of the lake. The dome's size was estimated at 300 m N-S and 400 m E-W on 25 September. SO2 flux measured that day remained low at 290 t/d.
Lahars. Rains spawned by typhoons and the southwest monsoon triggered small to moderate lahars during June and July along channels of the following rivers: O'Donnel-Tarlac (NE flank); Sacobia-Bamban (E flank); Pasig-Potrero (SE flank); Marella-Santo Tomas (SW flank); and Bucao (NW flank) (figure 28). Almost all of the lahars along these rivers were confined within their channels and did not cause significant damage. No lahars flowed down the Abacan River (E flank) because it had been cut off from pyroclastic-flow deposits in its headwaters by the effects of a secondary explosion on 4 April.
Typhoons passing across N Luzon and normal monsoonal rainfall triggered larger lahar flows in August and September that caused casualties and damage in several barangays (communities). On the E side of the volcano (along the Sacobia-Bamban River), lahars buried the northern barangays of the Mabalacat area to 3-4 m depth and parts of the Bamban area to 1-3 m depth between 28 and 30 August. The section of the Bamban River channel near the bridge connecting the towns of Mabalacat and Bamban was aggraded by 4.5 km of lahar material, and the bridge's floor was covered by 0.5 m of lahar deposits. The town of Bamban was also affected by flooding caused by breaching of a natural dam in a tributary of the Bamban River (the Marimla), made by lahar deposits that had come down the Sacobia River. On 3-5 September, lahars in the Sacobia-Bamban drainage destroyed the NE-corner fence of Clark Air Base and inundated a barangay near Mabalacat (Dolores) to 2-4 m depth. The 29 August lahars along the Pasig-Potrero River were initially confined within the channel, bounded by earthen dikes. However, aggradation of the channel allowed succeeding lahars to escape and flow west, outside the channel. A barangay (Mitla) near Porac was buried by 3-4 m of lahar deposits. Subsequent lahars on 3-4 September again affected Mitla, and 3 other barangays in the Santa Rita area.
Only muddy streamflows occurred along the Porac and Gumain rivers (SE flank) during the 1992 rainy season. At the height of monsoon rains on 20 August, thick 1991 lahar deposits along the Gumain River caused the diversion of the majority of the muddy streamflow southward (toward the Caulaman River), eventually causing flooding in the Dinalupihan area.
On the W flank, significant lahar episodes occurred along the Marella-Santo Tomas River on 18-20 August, and 4 and 21 September. The 18-20 August lahar episodes caused a 7-m aggradation near the junction of the Marella and Mapanuepe Rivers. The 4 September lahars buried a barangay (Dalanawan), 0.5 km downstream from the river junction, to 4 m depth, and eroded the river's S bank by 15-20 m at a barangay (San Rafael) 7 km downstream. The 21 September lahar deposited an additional 1.5 m at Dalanawan. Along the Bucao River (NW flank), the most significant lahar episode, on 20 August, buried Poonbato to 4.5-5 m depth.
The Dept of Social Welfare and Development and the National Disaster Coordinating Council reported lahar casualties of 6 dead and 6 injured during the 1992 rainy season. Totals of 1,665 and 47 houses, respectively, were destroyed in Pampanga and Zambales provinces.
Secondary explosions. Rainfall onto still-hot pyroclastic-flow deposits triggered numerous secondary explosions, some of which produced light to heavy ashfall on areas surrounding the volcano, but did not cause any significant damage. The largest of these fed columns that rose more than 18 km (table 7).
Table 7. Summary of the largest secondary explosions from pyroclastic-flow deposits at Pinatubo, July-September 1992. Courtesy of PHIVOLCS.
Date |
Column Height |
Location |
13 Jul 1992 |
4 km |
Sacobia pyroclastic fan (NE flank). Secondary pyroclastic flow along the Pasig-Potrero River. |
19-20 Aug 1992 |
6.4, 7.6, and 5.4 km |
Sacobia pyroclastic fan (NE flank). Ashfall at Clark Air Base (CAB). |
27-31 Aug 1992 |
4-13 km |
Sacobia pyroclastic fan (NE flank) (7 episodes). Ashfall at Clark Air Base. |
02 Sep 1992 |
12 km |
Sacobia pyroclastic fan (NE flank). Ashfall at Clark Air Base. |
04 Sep 1992 |
15 km |
Near headwaters of O'Donnell and Bucao Rivers (N-NW flank). Ashfall to 45 km NE. |
15 Sep 1992 |
18 km |
Marella pyroclastic fan (SW flank). Ashfall W and SW (affecting San Marcelino, San Narciso, San Antonio, and Subic). |
21 Sep 1992 |
18.2 km |
Sacobia pyroclastic fan (NE flank). Ashfall to SW. SE, and NE, including 2 hours at Manila. |
25 Sep 1992 |
12.2 km |
Sacobia pyroclastic fan (NE flank). Ashfall at Clark Air Base, San Marcelino, and Castillejos. |
Geologic Background. Prior to 1991 Pinatubo volcano was a relatively unknown, heavily forested lava dome complex located 100 km NW of Manila with no records of historical eruptions. The 1991 eruption, one of the world's largest of the 20th century, ejected massive amounts of tephra and produced voluminous pyroclastic flows, forming a small, 2.5-km-wide summit caldera whose floor is now covered by a lake. Caldera formation lowered the height of the summit by more than 300 m. Although the eruption caused hundreds of fatalities and major damage with severe social and economic impact, successful monitoring efforts greatly reduced the number of fatalities. Widespread lahars that redistributed products of the 1991 eruption have continued to cause severe disruption. Previous major eruptive periods, interrupted by lengthy quiescent periods, have produced pyroclastic flows and lahars that were even more extensive than in 1991.
Information Contacts: PHIVOLCS.
Poas (Costa Rica) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Poas
Costa Rica
10.2°N, 84.233°W; summit elev. 2697 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Degassing continues in and around crater lake
The level of the crater lake was 30 cm lower in September than in August. Lake temperature dropped slightly to about 70°C, pH rose to 1.8, and its color remained green. Degassing continued from fumaroles in the N part of the crater. Active cones on the E side ejected sulfur. The maximum temperature measured at fumaroles on the 1953-55 dome was 80.5°C.
The total of 4,905 low-frequency events recorded by UNA was similar to August, with the daily average remaining at 163. An additional 37 medium- to high-frequency events were recorded, plus 5 hours of low-frequency tremor at irregular intervals.
Geologic Background. The broad vegetated edifice of Poás, one of the most active volcanoes of Costa Rica, contains three craters along a N-S line. The frequently visited multi-hued summit crater lakes of the basaltic-to-dacitic volcano are easily accessible by vehicle from the nearby capital city of San José. A N-S-trending fissure cutting the complex stratovolcano extends to the lower N flank, where it has produced the Congo stratovolcano and several lake-filled maars. The southernmost of the two summit crater lakes, Botos, last erupted about 7,500 years ago. The more prominent geothermally heated northern lake, Laguna Caliente, is one of the world's most acidic natural lakes, with a pH of near zero. It has been the site of frequent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions since an eruption was reported in 1828. Eruptions often include geyser-like ejections of crater-lake water.
Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI; G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE.
Rabaul (Papua New Guinea) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Rabaul
Papua New Guinea
4.2459°S, 152.1937°E; summit elev. 688 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Seismicity declines
"There was a decrease in seismic activity . . . during September while ground deformation measurements indicated continued uplift. The number of caldera earthquakes recorded was 394 . . .. Only 25 events were large enough (M >0.5) to be located, the majority from the W part of the caldera seismic zone. The tiltmeters in the N and NE parts of the caldera registered a steady accumulation of a few microradians of inflation during September. Results from the annual levelling survey, which was completed in August, show continued long-term uplift. Over the past year, the S part of Matupit Island has been elevated ~60 mm."
Geologic Background. The low-lying Rabaul caldera on the tip of the Gazelle Peninsula at the NE end of New Britain forms a broad sheltered harbor utilized by what was the island's largest city prior to a major eruption in 1994. The outer flanks of the asymmetrical shield volcano are formed by thick pyroclastic-flow deposits. The 8 x 14 km caldera is widely breached on the east, where its floor is flooded by Blanche Bay and was formed about 1,400 years ago. An earlier caldera-forming eruption about 7,100 years ago is thought to have originated from Tavui caldera, offshore to the north. Three small stratovolcanoes lie outside the N and NE caldera rims. Post-caldera eruptions built basaltic-to-dacitic pyroclastic cones on the caldera floor near the NE and W caldera walls. Several of these, including Vulcan cone, which was formed during a large eruption in 1878, have produced major explosive activity during historical time. A powerful explosive eruption in 1994 occurred simultaneously from Vulcan and Tavurvur volcanoes and forced the temporary abandonment of Rabaul city.
Information Contacts: B. Talai and C. McKee, RVO.
Rincon de la Vieja (Costa Rica) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Rincon de la Vieja
Costa Rica
10.83°N, 85.324°W; summit elev. 1916 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Strong fumarolic activity; seismic swarm
Intense fumarolic activity continued from the SE inner wall of the active crater (figure 5). The emissions were rich in water vapor and sulfurous gases, emerging with a jet-engine sound and rising 350 m above the level of the crater lake in the absence of wind. Sulfur cones formed at the vents. Four main hot areas were evident in the crater lake (near the center, and on the NW, N, and NE sides), which was about 250 m in diameter. The lake was colored gray by the large amount of muddy sediment that it carried in suspension. Strands of mud and sulfur floated on the lake surface. Its temperature was measured by the Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE) at 52°C on 25 September. Of the 403 events of medium to high frequency recorded in September, 388 occurred between 1 and 10 September, the period in which the medium-frequency seismicity (>2.5 Hz) was recorded (figure 6). Sporadic low-frequency harmonic tremor was detected for periods of up to 2.5 minutes.
Geologic Background. Rincón de la Vieja, the largest volcano in NW Costa Rica, is a remote volcanic complex in the Guanacaste Range. The volcano consists of an elongated, arcuate NW-SE-trending ridge constructed within the 15-km-wide early Pleistocene Guachipelín caldera, whose rim is exposed on the south side. Sometimes known as the "Colossus of Guanacaste," it has an estimated volume of 130 km3 and contains at least nine major eruptive centers. Activity has migrated to the SE, where the youngest-looking craters are located. The twin cone of Santa María volcano, the highest peak of the complex, is located at the eastern end of a smaller, 5-km-wide caldera and has a 500-m-wide crater. A Plinian eruption producing the 0.25 km3 Río Blanca tephra about 3,500 years ago was the last major magmatic eruption. All subsequent eruptions, including numerous historical eruptions possibly dating back to the 16th century, have been from the prominent active crater containing a 500-m-wide acid lake located ENE of Von Seebach crater.
Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI; G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE.
Ruapehu (New Zealand) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Ruapehu
New Zealand
39.28°S, 175.57°E; summit elev. 2797 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Crater Lake cools
Activity from Crater Lake was limited to thin, dark slicks that occasionally appeared over the central vent, and weak to moderate upwelling from the N vents during fieldwork on 31 August and 13 September. No steaming was evident and the lake remained a clear blue-green color. Little deformation was detected, but heavy snow-cover prevented measurements at most of the network.
Lake temperature was only 10.2°C on 13 September, 7° cooler than on 17 July. Diminished heat flow into the lake has lowered its temperature to the 10°C range only eight times since 1980, and phreatic eruptions occurred within 1-2 months of half of those cooling episodes. One was a moderately explosive vent-clearing event on 8 December 1988, but the others were relatively small.
Geologic Background. Ruapehu, one of New Zealand's most active volcanoes, is a complex stratovolcano constructed during at least four cone-building episodes dating back to about 200,000 years ago. The dominantly andesitic 110 km3 volcanic massif is elongated in a NNE-SSW direction and surrounded by another 100 km3 ring plain of volcaniclastic debris, including the NW-flank Murimoto debris-avalanche deposit. A series of subplinian eruptions took place between about 22,600 and 10,000 years ago, but pyroclastic flows have been infrequent. The broad summait area and flank contain at least six vents active during the Holocene. Frequent mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded from the Te Wai a-Moe (Crater Lake) vent, and tephra characteristics suggest that the crater lake may have formed as recently as 3,000 years ago. Lahars resulting from phreatic eruptions at the summit crater lake are a hazard to a ski area on the upper flanks and lower river valleys.
Information Contacts: P. Otway, IGNS Wairakei [formerly DSIR].
Spurr (United States) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Spurr
United States
61.299°N, 152.251°W; summit elev. 3374 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Strong seismicity but no new eruptive episodes
No eruptive episodes have occurred from Spurr in the month following the explosive activity of 16-17 September. The cloud from that eruption was tracked by satellite as it moved across Canada and the northern United States (figure 11) and was frequently observed from aircraft. Vigorous seismicity was continuing in mid-October and geologists warned that another eruption could occur without additional seismic precursors.
Seismicity declined slowly after the September eruptive episode, but deep earthquakes continued to occur. SO2 flux measured by COSPEC rose from about 300 metric tons/day (t/d) on 25 September to 800 t/d on 29 September. Shallow seismicity began to increase again on 30 September, and weak volcanic tremor resumed on 1 October at 1900, the first tremor recorded since 25 September. Tremor amplitude increased on 2 October to levels comparable to those preceding the June and September eruptive episodes, but sustained tremor ended abruptly at 1830 that evening. Intermittent, banded tremor alternated with periods of sustained tremor during the next several days, while fieldwork revealed continued emission of a roughly 1-km white plume from the S flank's Crater Peak vent. CO2 flux had declined from nearly 10,000 t/d in late September to 2,900 t/d on 5 October, while the rate of SO2 emission had steadied at about 400 t/d. Tremor stopped before noon on 6 October but periodic low-amplitude tremor resumed on the 8th. Tremor stopped again on 10 October but resumed on the 15th, as a few shallow and deep earthquakes were recorded daily. Intermittent tremor continued as of 20 October.
Geologic Background. Mount Spurr is the closest volcano to Anchorage, Alaska (130 km W) and just NE of Chakachamna Lake. The summit is a large lava dome at the center of a roughly 5-km-wide amphitheater open to the south formed by a late-Pleistocene or early Holocene debris avalanche and associated pyroclastic flows that destroyed an older edifice. The debris avalanche traveled more than 25 km SE, and the resulting deposit contains blocks as large as 100 m in diameter. Several ice-carved post-collapse cones or lava domes are present. The youngest vent, Crater Peak, formed at the southern end of the amphitheater and has been the source of about 40 identified Holocene tephra layers. Eruptions from Crater Peak in 1953 and 1992 deposited ash in Anchorage.
Information Contacts: AVO; G. Stephens, NOAA/NESDIS.
Turrialba (Costa Rica) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Turrialba
Costa Rica
10.025°N, 83.767°W; summit elev. 3340 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Occasional seismicity
Only 13 low-frequency events were recorded in September by UNA station VTU, 0.5 km E of the main crater; three occurred on 29 September.
Geologic Background. Turrialba, the easternmost of Costa Rica's Holocene volcanoes, is a large vegetated basaltic-to-dacitic stratovolcano located across a broad saddle NE of Irazú volcano overlooking the city of Cartago. The massive edifice covers an area of 500 km2. Three well-defined craters occur at the upper SW end of a broad 800 x 2200 m summit depression that is breached to the NE. Most activity originated from the summit vent complex, but two pyroclastic cones are located on the SW flank. Five major explosive eruptions have occurred during the past 3500 years. A series of explosive eruptions during the 19th century were sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows. Fumarolic activity continues at the central and SW summit craters.
Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, and V. Barboza, OVSICORI; G. Soto and R. Barquero, ICE.
Unnamed (Solomon Islands) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Unnamed
Solomon Islands
8.92°S, 158.03°E; summit elev. -240 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Thermal plumes detected over seamount crater
A bathymetric survey in the vicinity of Kavachi volcano was carried out on 11 August by the HMNZS Tui. The ship made three parallel transits, ~1,200 m apart, over the summit of the unnamed seamount ~7 km NW of Kavachi. The summit is mostly flat, with a depth of at least 130 m found on each pass. The transit farthest NE showed a shallow and a deep crater on the tracing of the 12 kHz echo sounder. The 44-kHz echo sounder showed two small plumes rising to mid-water depth on either side of the smaller crater.
Geologic Background. A seamount was mapped during a 1979 cruise about 9 km NE of Kavachi (Okugrin, 1985) that appeared to have been recently active; porphyritic and aphyric andesitic rocks were dredged from that location. Another seamount 7 km NW of Kavachi was capped by corals, and a small peak was noted on the SW flank of the seamount (see map after Okugrin, 1985, in Exon and Johnson, 1986).
Information Contacts: L. Hall, Defence Scientific Establishment, and Lt. Cdr. G. Craig, HMNZSTui, Auckland Naval Base, New Zealand.
Unzendake (Japan) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Unzendake
Japan
32.761°N, 130.299°E; summit elev. 1483 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Continued lava-dome growth; collapses generate pyroclastic flows
The period mid-September to mid-October was characterized by exogenous growth of dome 8 on the SE part of the lava-dome complex. Lava emerged from the SE end of an arc-shaped crack (described as a circular fault in 17:08), piled up near the vent, and repeatedly collapsed from the flow front, ~ 100 m away. This short flow-length implied high-viscosity lava due to a low magma-supply rate, estimated at ~ 105 m3/day from helicopter observations. In 1991, lava domes extended up to 400 m from vents when magma-supply rates exceeded 3 x 105 m3/day. The part of dome 8 that formed along the crack in mid-August and subsequently stopped growing has been uplifted and pushed E.
Rockfalls continued to occur on the E flank (figure 45), increasing the thickness of talus deposits around the dome complex. Domes 7 and 8 generated many pyroclastic flows, mainly toward the SE (Akamatsu Valley), with others to the E (Mizunashi Valley) and NE (Oshiga Valley). Most of the pyroclastic flows traveled 1-2 km, but some extended > 3 km. Ash clouds from the flows rose about 0.5-1 km. Relatively large pyroclastic flows generated by rockfalls from dome 7, which was pushed above dome 6 during the growth of dome 8 in mid-August, occurred at 0918 on 27 September, 1550 on 3 October, and 1944 on 10 October. These pyroclastic flows reached the Kita-Kamikoba and Kami-Onokoba (Fukae town) areas, after traveling 3.4 km along the Mizunashi Valley (3 October) and 3.6 km down the Akamatsu Valley (10 October) from the toe of the dome (~ 400 m from Jigokuato Crater). No damage was done, and the surrounding forest was not burned or destroyed. The rockfall volume that generated these pyroclastic flows was estimated at 0.5-1.0 x 105 m3. Seismic duration of the flow was 160 seconds. Vertical drop during travel was ~ 1 km. The main block-and-ash flows were the longest in 1992 and traveled slightly farther than those of 3 June 1991 . . . .
The 27 September pyroclastic flow was videotaped from a helicopter by the Ground Self-Defense Force. The frontal 1/3 of dome 7 (~ 105 m3; 140 m wide, 80 m high, and 20 m deep) suddenly fell away, developing into pyroclastic flows along the divide between the Mizunashi and Akamatsu valleys. The main flow split in two after striking a large block. One portion traveled 3.5 km along the Akamatsu Valley, equaling the 8 August flow (17:08). The videotape showed ash clouds moving steadily (rather than surging) on the ground in the area S and SW of Kami-Onokoba. An inspection from the air 6 hours later showed thick ash covering trees and houses. New damage might be impossible to detect because most of the area had already been destroyed by the 8 August flows and covered with ash.
The frequency of pyroclastic flows detected seismically by JMA ranged from 4 to 36 in September, for a monthly total of 395. Small earthquakes continued both beneath and within the dome complex at rates of 50-600/day and totaled 5,947 for September. Seismicity was most active in mid-September, with 632 events recorded on the 11th. The number of evacuees from Shimbara city and Fukae town was reduced to 3,017 from 6,054 on 9 September. Mayors of the two towns decided on 9 October to leave that number unchanged through the end of the year.
Lava composition has been constant throughout the current activity, which began in May 1991; a 65 wt.% SiO2 dacite with hornblende and biotite phenocrysts. With the exception of volcanic bombs ejected by Vulcanian eruptions on 8 and 11 June 1991, the specific gravity of the lava has remained constant. An ash-laden eruption column was observed on 1 October coming from cracks in dome 3 and filling Jigokuato Crater. The only other ash column observed this year was on 3 April. Volcanic gas activity was strong during this period.
Geologic Background. The massive Unzendake volcanic complex comprises much of the Shimabara Peninsula east of the city of Nagasaki. An E-W graben, 30-40 km long, extends across the peninsula. Three large stratovolcanoes with complex structures, Kinugasa on the north, Fugen-dake at the east-center, and Kusenbu on the south, form topographic highs on the broad peninsula. Fugendake and Mayuyama volcanoes in the east-central portion of the andesitic-to-dacitic volcanic complex have been active during the Holocene. The Mayuyama lava dome complex, located along the eastern coast west of Shimabara City, formed about 4000 years ago and was the source of a devastating 1792 CE debris avalanche and tsunami. Historical eruptive activity has been restricted to the summit and flanks of Fugendake. The latest activity during 1990-95 formed a lava dome at the summit, accompanied by pyroclastic flows that caused fatalities and damaged populated areas near Shimabara City.
Information Contacts: S. Nakada, Kyushu Univ; JMA.
Whakaari/White Island (New Zealand) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Whakaari/White Island
New Zealand
37.52°S, 177.18°E; summit elev. 294 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Block ejection enlarges active crater
A new impact-crater field, extending to roughly 350 m ESE from the rim of the 1978/92 crater complex, was seen by helicopter pilot R.Fleming on 28 June. Morphology of the impact craters suggested that they were only a few days old, and that many of the ballistic blocks that had produced the craters had near-vertical trajectories. The eruption apparently occurred from the W part of the 1978/92 complex, substantially enlarging Wade Crater ... . NE of the 1978/92 complex, the wall separating the April 91 pit from Donald Duck Crater had been removed by the end of June, perhaps 1-2 weeks earlier.
None of the activity was witnessed, but seismic data suggest the possible timing. June-August volcanic seismicity was generally at low levels, with 2-5 A-type shocks/day. Geologists suspect that the wall dividing April 91 and Donald Duck craters collapsed on 17-18 June, when 17 A-type events were recorded daily. Wade Crater's eruption may have accompanied 13 E-type (explosion) events recorded 23-24 June, or it may have been triggered by a ML 5.6 tectonic earthquake on 21 June, centered ~20 km SW of White Island. Numerous aftershocks followed: 200 on 22 June, 150 on the 23rd, 40 on the 24th, and 10-20/day for the next 5 days. B-type events typically occurred at rates of 1-3 every other day, and there was no significant volcanic tremor.
Fieldwork by B. Scott on 2 September revealed that Wade Crater had enlarged substantially since May, and had developed 3 sub-craters. A western sub-crater, separated by a wall 15-20 m high, extended Wade 50-80 m W from its former rim. A bright-green crater lake filled the central portion, and a hummocky eastern section continued to erode until only narrow walls remained between it and two other steaming vents (May 91 and TV1). A pit dug just outside the SE rim of the 1978/92 complex showed an accumulation of ~55 mm of ash since May.
Geologic Background. The uninhabited Whakaari/White Island is the 2 x 2.4 km emergent summit of a 16 x 18 km submarine volcano in the Bay of Plenty about 50 km offshore of North Island. The island consists of two overlapping andesitic-to-dacitic stratovolcanoes. The SE side of the crater is open at sea level, with the recent activity centered about 1 km from the shore close to the rear crater wall. Volckner Rocks, sea stacks that are remnants of a lava dome, lie 5 km NW. Descriptions of volcanism since 1826 have included intermittent moderate phreatic, phreatomagmatic, and Strombolian eruptions; activity there also forms a prominent part of Maori legends. The formation of many new vents during the 19th and 20th centuries caused rapid changes in crater floor topography. Collapse of the crater wall in 1914 produced a debris avalanche that buried buildings and workers at a sulfur-mining project. Explosive activity in December 2019 took place while tourists were present, resulting in many fatalities. The official government name Whakaari/White Island is a combination of the full Maori name of Te Puia o Whakaari ("The Dramatic Volcano") and White Island (referencing the constant steam plume) given by Captain James Cook in 1769.
Information Contacts: B. Scott, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (IGNS), Rotorua [formerly DSIR].
Zaozan [Zaosan] (Japan) — September 1992 Cite this Report
Zaozan [Zaosan]
Japan
38.144°N, 140.44°E; summit elev. 1841 m
All times are local (unless otherwise noted)
Earthquake and numerous aftershocks, but no surface changes evident
A seismic shock of M 4.7 occurred at 1758 on 1 September a few kilometers ESE of the summit. The shock was felt at JMA intensity IV near the volcano, and was weakly felt at Sendai (35 km E), Fukushima (45 km S), and Onahama (135 km E). Aftershocks were numerous, but declined toward mid-September. The high seismicity was the first at the volcano since July 1990, when there were many small earthquakes below the summit. Surveys of fumarolic areas on 5 September revealed no changes in temperature from the last survey in 1990.
Geologic Background. The Zaozan (or Zaosan) volcano group consists of a complex cluster of stratovolcanoes in north-central Honshu about 40 km W of Sendai Bay. The Pleistocene Ryuzan volcano forms the western group (Nishi-Zao), and Byobu and Fubo volcanoes form the southern group (Minami-Zao). The complex was constructed over granitic basement rocks thus has a relatively small volume. The 7 km3 Zaozan volcano proper forms the central group (Chuo-Zao), a complex topped by several lava domes and the Goshikidake tuff cone, aligned NW-SE. Several episodes of edifice collapse produced debris avalanches during the Pleistocene. Goshikidake contains the active Okama crater, filled with a colorful, strongly acidic crater lake; it has been the source of most of the frequent eruptions recorded since the 8th century CE.
Information Contacts: JMA.