Manam is a 10-km-wide island that consists of two active summit craters: the Main summit crater and the South summit crater and is located 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea. Frequent mild-to-moderate eruptions have been recorded since 1616. The current eruption period began during June 2014 and has more recently been characterized by intermittent ash plumes and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report updates activity that occurred from November 2022 through May 2023 based on information from the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and various satellite data.

Ash plumes were reported during November and December 2022 by the Darwin VAAC. On 7 November an ash plume rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted NE based on satellite images and weather models. On 14 November an ash plume rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted W based on RVO webcam images. On 20 November ash plumes rose to 1.8 km altitude and drifted NW. On 26 December an ash plume rose to 3 km altitude and drifted S and SSE.

Intermittent sulfur dioxide plumes were detected using the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite, some of which exceeded at least two Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions (figure 93). Occasional low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were recorded by the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) system; less than five anomalies were recorded each month during November 2022 through May 2023 (figure 94). Two thermal hotspots were detected by the MODVOLC thermal alerts system on 10 December 2022. On clear weather days, thermal activity was also captured in infrared satellite imagery in both the Main and South summit craters, accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions (figure 95).

Figure 93. Distinct sulfur dioxide plumes were captured, rising from Manam based on data from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite on 16 November 2022 (top left), 6 December 2022 (top right), 14 January 2023 (bottom left), and 23 March 2023 (bottom right). Plumes generally drifted in different directions. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Figure 94. Occasional low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were detected at Manam during November 2022 through May 2023, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). Only three anomalies were detected during late November, one in early December, two during January 2023, one in late March, four during April, and one during late May. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 95. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images show a consistent thermal anomaly (bright yellow-orange) in both the Main (the northern crater) and South summit craters on 10 November 2022 (top left), 15 December 2022 (top right), 3 February 2023 (bottom left), and 24 April 2023 (bottom right). Gas-and-steam emissions occasionally accompanied the thermal activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The 10-km-wide island of Manam, lying 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea, is one of the country's most active volcanoes. Four large radial valleys extend from the unvegetated summit of the conical basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano to its lower flanks. These valleys channel lava flows and pyroclastic avalanches that have sometimes reached the coast. Five small satellitic centers are located near the island's shoreline on the northern, southern, and western sides. Two summit craters are present; both are active, although most observed eruptions have originated from the southern crater, concentrating eruptive products during much of the past century into the SE valley. Frequent eruptions, typically of mild-to-moderate scale, have been recorded since 1616. Occasional larger eruptions have produced pyroclastic flows and lava flows that reached flat-lying coastal areas and entered the sea, sometimes impacting populated areas.

Information Contacts: Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO), Geohazards Management Division, Department of Mineral Policy and Geohazards Management (DMPGM), PO Box 3386, Kokopo, East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea; Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Krakatau is located in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan cones and left only a remnant of Rakata. The post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former Danan and Perbuwatan cones; it has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927. The current eruption period began in May 2021 and has recently consisted of explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers activity during November 2022 through April 2023 based on information provided by the Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, referred to as Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and several sources of satellite data.

Activity was relatively low during November and December 2022. Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-100 m above the summit and drifted in different directions. Gray ash plumes rose 200 m above the summit and drifted NE at 1047 and at 2343 on 11 November. On 14 November at 0933 ash plumes rose 300 m above the summit and drifted E. An ash plume was reported at 0935 on 15 December that rose 100 m above the summit and drifted NE. An eruptive event at 1031 later that day generated an ash plume that rose 700 m above the summit and drifted NE. A gray ash plume at 1910 rose 100 m above the summit and drifted E. Incandescent material was ejected above the vent based on an image taken at 1936.

During January 2023 daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions. Gray-to-brown ash plumes were reported at 1638 on 3 January, at 1410 and 1509 on 4 January, and at 0013 on 5 January that rose 100-750 m above the summit and drifted NE and E; the gray-to-black ash plume at 1509 on 4 January rose as high as 3 km above the summit and drifted E. Gray ash plumes were recorded at 1754, 2241, and 2325 on 11 January and at 0046 on 12 January and rose 200-300 m above the summit and drifted NE. Toward the end of January, PVMBG reported that activity had intensified; Strombolian activity was visible in webcam images taken at 0041, 0043, and 0450 on 23 January. Multiple gray ash plumes throughout the day rose 200-500 m above the summit and drifted E and SE (figure 135). Webcam images showed progressively intensifying Strombolian activity at 1919, 1958, and 2113 on 24 January; a gray ash plume at 1957 rose 300 m above the summit and drifted E (figure 135). Eruptive events at 0231 and 2256 on 25 January and at 0003 on 26 January ejected incandescent material from the vent, based on webcam images. Gray ash plumes observed during 26-27 January rose 300-500 m above the summit and drifted NE, E, and SE.

Figure 135. Webcam images of a strong, gray ash plume (left) and Strombolian activity (right) captured at Krakatau at 0802 on 23 January 2023 (left) and at 2116 on 24 January 2023 (right). Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Low levels of activity were reported during February and March. Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in different directions. The Darwin VAAC reported that continuous ash emissions rose to 1.5-1.8 km altitude and drifted W and NW during 1240-1300 on 10 March, based on satellite images, weather models, and PVMBG webcams. White-and-gray ash plumes rose 500 m and 300 m above the summit and drifted SW at 1446 and 1846 on 18 March, respectively. An eruptive event was recorded at 2143, though it was not visible due to darkness. Multiple ash plumes were reported during 27-29 March that rose as high as 2.5 km above the summit and drifted NE, W, and SW (figure 136). Webcam images captured incandescent ejecta above the vent at 0415 and around the summit area at 2003 on 28 March and at 0047 above the vent on 29 March.

Figure 136. Webcam image of a strong ash plume rising above Krakatau at 1522 on 28 March 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions during April and May. White-and-gray and black plumes rose 50-300 m above the summit on 2 and 9 April. On 11 May at 1241 a gray ash plume rose 1-3 km above the summit and drifted SW. On 12 May at 0920 a gray ash plume rose 2.5 km above the summit and drifted SW and at 2320 an ash plume rose 1.5 km above the summit and drifted SW. An accompanying webcam image showed incandescent ejecta. On 13 May at 0710 a gray ash plume rose 2 km above the summit and drifted SW (figure 137).

Figure 137. Webcam image of an ash plume rising 2 km above the summit of Krakatau at 0715 on 13 May 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph of MODIS thermal anomaly data showed intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 138). Some of this thermal activity was also visible in infrared satellite imagery at the crater, accompanied by gas-and-steam and ash plumes that drifted in different directions (figure 139).

Figure 138. Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were detected at Krakatau during November 2022 through April 2023, based on this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 139. A thermal anomaly (bright yellow-orange) was visible at Krakatau in infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images on clear weather days during November 2022 through May 2023. Occasional gas-and-steam and ash plumes accompanied the thermal activity, which drifted in different directions. Images were captured on 25 November 2022 (top left), 15 December 2022 (top right), 27 January 2023 (bottom left), and 12 May 2023 (bottom right). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The renowned Krakatau (frequently mis-named as Krakatoa) volcano lies in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. Collapse of an older edifice, perhaps in 416 or 535 CE, formed a 7-km-wide caldera. Remnants of that volcano are preserved in Verlaten and Lang Islands; subsequently the Rakata, Danan, and Perbuwatan cones were formed, coalescing to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan, and left only a remnant of Rakata. This eruption caused more than 36,000 fatalities, most as a result of tsunamis that swept the adjacent coastlines of Sumatra and Java. Pyroclastic surges traveled 40 km across the Sunda Strait and reached the Sumatra coast. After a quiescence of less than a half century, the post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former Danan and Perbuwatan cones. Anak Krakatau has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Stromboli, located in Italy, has exhibited nearly constant lava fountains for the past 2,000 years; recorded eruptions date back to 350 BCE. Eruptive activity occurs at the summit from multiple vents, which include a north crater area (N area) and a central-southern crater (CS area) on a terrace known as the ‘terrazza craterica’ at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a large scarp that runs from the summit down the NW side of the volcano-island. Activity typically consists of Strombolian explosions, incandescent ejecta, lava flows, and pyroclastic flows. Thermal and visual monitoring cameras are located on the nearby Pizzo Sopra La Fossa, above the terrazza craterica, and at multiple flank locations. The current eruption period has been ongoing since 1934 and recent activity has consisted of frequent Strombolian explosions and lava flows (BGVN 48:02). This report updates activity during January through April 2023 primarily characterized by Strombolian explosions and lava flows based on reports from Italy's Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) and various satellite data.

Frequent explosive activity continued throughout the reporting period, generally in the low-to-medium range, based on the number of hourly explosions in the summit crater (figure 253, table 16). Intermittent thermal activity was recorded by the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data (figure 254). According to data collected by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, a total of 9 thermal alerts were detected: one on 2 January 2023, one on 1 February, five on 24 March, and two on 26 March. The stronger pulses of thermal activity likely reflected lava flow events. Infrared satellite imagery captured relatively strong thermal hotspots at the two active summit craters on clear weather days, showing an especially strong event on 8 March (figure 255).

Figure 253. Explosive activity persisted at Stromboli during January through April 2023, with low to medium numbers of daily explosions at the summit crater. The average number of daily explosions (y-axis) during January through April (x-axis) are broken out by area and as a total, with red for the N area, blue for the CS area, and black for the combined total. The data are smoothed as daily (thin lines) and weekly (thick lines) averages. The black squares along the top represent days with no observations due to poor visibility (Visib. Scarsa). The right axis indicates the qualitative activity levels from low (basso) to highest (altissimo) with the green highlighted band indicating the most common level. Courtesy of INGV (Report 17/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 18/04/2023 - 24/04/2023).

Table 16. Summary of type, frequency, and intensity of explosive activity at Stromboli by month during January-April 2023; information from webcam observations. Courtesy of INGV weekly reports.

Figure 254. Intermittent thermal activity at Stromboli was detected during January through April 2023 and varied in strength, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). A pulse of activity was captured during late March. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 255. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images showing persistent thermal anomalies at both summit crater on 1 February 2023 (top left), 23 March 2023 (top right), 8 March 2023 (bottom left), and 27 April 2023. A particularly strong thermal anomaly was visible on 8 March. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Activity during January-February 2023. Strombolian explosions were reported in the N crater area, as well as lava effusion. Explosive activity in the N crater area ejected coarse material (bombs and lapilli). Intense spattering was observed in both the N1 and N2 craters. In the CS crater area, explosions generally ejected fine material (ash), sometimes to heights greater than 250 m. The intensity of the explosions was characterized as low-to-medium in the N crater and medium-to-high in the CS crater. After intense spattering activity from the N crater area, a lava overflow began at 2136 on 2 January that flowed part way down the Sciara del Fuoco, possibly moving down the drainage that formed in October, out of view from webcams. The flow remained active for a couple of hours before stopping and beginning to cool. A second lava flow was reported at 0224 on 4 January that similarly remained active for a few hours before stopping and cooling. Intense spattering was observed on 11 and 13 January from the N1 crater. After intense spattering activity at the N2 crater at 1052 on 17 January another lava flow started to flow into the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco (figure 256), dividing into two: one that traveled in the direction of the drainage formed in October, and the other one moving parallel to the point of emission. By the afternoon, the rate of the flow began to decrease, and at 1900 it started to cool. A lava flow was reported at 1519 on 24 January following intense spattering in the N2 area, which began to flow into the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco. By the morning of 25 January, the lava flow had begun to cool. During 27 January the frequency of eruption in the CS crater area increased to 6-7 events/hour compared to the typical 1-7 events/hour; the following two days showed a decrease in frequency to less than 1 event/hour. Starting at 1007 on 30 January a high-energy explosive sequence was produced by vents in the CS crater area. The sequence began with an initial energetic pulse that lasted 45 seconds, ejecting predominantly coarse products 300 m above the crater that fell in an ESE direction. Subsequent and less intense explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater. The total duration of this event lasted approximately two minutes. During 31 January through 6, 13, and 24 February spattering activity was particularly intense for short periods in the N2 crater.

Figure 256. Webcam images of the lava flow development at Stromboli during 17 January 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. The lava flow appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. Courtesy of INGV (Report 04/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 16/01/2023 - 22/01/2023).

An explosive sequence was reported on 16 February that was characterized by a major explosion in the CS crater area (figure 257). The sequence began at 1817 near the S2 crater that ejected material radially. A few seconds later, lava fountains were observed in the central part of the crater. Three explosions of medium intensity (material was ejected less than 150 m high) were recorded at the S2 crater. The first part of this sequence lasted approximately one minute, according to INGV, and material rose 300 m above the crater and then was deposited along the Sciara del Fuoco. The second phase began at 1818 at the S1 crater; it lasted seven seconds and material was ejected 150 m above the crater. Another event 20 seconds later lasted 12 seconds, also ejecting material 150 m above the crater. The sequence ended with at least three explosions of mostly fine material from the S1 crater. The total duration of this sequence was about two minutes.

Figure 257. Webcam images of the explosive sequence at Stromboli on 16 February 2023 taken by the SCT and SCV infrared and visible cameras. The lava appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. Courtesy of INGV (Report 08/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 13/02/2023 - 19/02/2023).

Short, intense spattering activity was noted above the N1 crater on 27 and 28 February. A lava overflow was first reported at 0657 from the N2 crater on 27 February that flowed into the October 2022 drainage. By 1900 the flow had stopped. A second lava overflow also in the N crater area occurred at 2149, which overlapped the first flow and then stopped by 0150 on 28 February. Material detached from both the lava overflows rolled down the Sciara del Fuoco, some of which was visible in webcam images.

Activity during March-April 2023. Strombolian activity continued with spattering activity and lava overflows in the N crater area during March. Explosive activity at the N crater area varied from low (less than 80 m high) to medium (less than 150 m high) and ejected coarse material, such as bombs and lapilli. Spattering was observed above the N1 crater, while explosive activity at the CS crater area varied from medium to high (greater than 150 m high) and ejected coarse material. Intense spattering activity was observed for short periods on 6 March above the N1 crater. At approximately 0610 a lava overflow was reported around the N2 crater on 8 March, which then flowed into the October 2022 drainage. By 1700 the flow started to cool. A second overflow began at 1712 on 9 March and overlapped the previous flow. It had stopped by 2100. Material from both flows was deposited along the Sciara del Fuoco, though much of the activity was not visible in webcam images. On 11 March a lava overflow was observed at 0215 that overlapped the two previous flows in the October 2022 drainage. By late afternoon on 12 March, it had stopped.

During a field excursion on 16 March, scientists noted that a vent in the central crater area was degassing. Another vent showed occasional Strombolian activity that emitted ash and lapilli. During 1200-1430 low-to-medium intense activity was reported; the N1 crater emitted ash emissions and the N2 crater emitted both ash and coarse material. Some explosions also occurred in the CS crater area that ejected coarse material. The C crater in the CS crater area occasionally showed gas jetting and low intensity explosions on 17 and 22 March; no activity was observed at the S1 crater. Intense, longer periods of spattering were reported in the N1 crater on 19, 24, and 25 March. Around 2242 on 23 March a lava overflow began from the N1 crater that, after about an hour, began moving down the October 2022 drainage and flow along the Sciara del Fuoco (figure 258). Between 0200 and 0400 on 26 March the flow rate increased, which generated avalanches of material from collapses at the advancing flow front. By early afternoon, the flow began to cool. On 25 March at 1548 an explosive sequence began from one of the vents at S2 in the CS crater area (figure 258). Fine ash mixed with coarse material was ejected 300 m above the crater rim and drifted SSE. Some modest explosions around Vent C were detected at 1549 on 25 March, which included an explosion at 1551 that ejected coarse material. The entire explosive sequence lasted approximately three minutes.

Figure 258. Webcam images of the lava overflow in the N1 crater area of Stromboli on 23 March 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. The lava appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. The start of the explosive sequence was also captured on 25 March 2023 accompanied by an eruption plume (e) captured by the SCT and SPT infrared webcams. Courtesy of INGV (Report 13/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 20/03/2023 - 26/03/2023).

During April explosions persisted in both the N and CS crater areas. Fine material was ejected less than 80 m above the N crater rim until 6 April, followed by ejection of coarser material. Fine material was also ejected less than 80 m above the CS crater rim. The C and S2 crater did not show significant eruptive activity. On 7 April an explosive sequence was detected in the CS crater area at 1203 (figure 259). The first explosion lasted approximately 18 seconds and ejected material 400 m above the crater rim, depositing pyroclastic material in the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco. At 1204 a second, less intense explosion lasted approximately four seconds and deposited pyroclastic products outside the crater area and near Pizzo Sopra La Fossa. A third explosion at 1205 was mainly composed of ash that rose about 150 m above the crater and lasted roughly 20 seconds. A fourth explosion occurred at 1205 about 28 seconds after the third explosion and ejected a mixture of coarse and fine material about 200 m above the crater; the explosion lasted roughly seven seconds. Overall, the entire explosive sequence lasted about two minutes and 20 seconds. After the explosive sequence on 7 April, explosions in both the N and CS crater areas ejected material as high as 150 m above the crater.

Figure 259. Webcam images of the explosive sequence at Stromboli during 1203-1205 (local time) on 7 April 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. Strong eruption plumes are visible, accompanied by deposits on the nearby flanks. Courtesy of INGV (Report 15/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 03/04/2023 - 09/04/2023).

On 21 April research scientists from INGV made field observations in the summit area of Stromboli, and some lapilli samples were collected. In the N crater area near the N1 crater, a small cone was observed with at least two active vents, one of which was characterized by Strombolian explosions. The other vent produced explosions that ejected ash and chunks of cooled lava. At the N2 crater at least one vent was active and frequently emitted ash. In the CS crater area, a small cone contained 2-3 degassing vents and a smaller, possible fissure area also showed signs of degassing close to the Pizzo Sopra La Fossa. In the S part of the crater, three vents were active: a small hornito was characterized by modest and rare explosions, a vent that intermittently produced weak Strombolian explosions, and a vent at the end of the terrace that produced frequent ash emissions. Near the S1 crater there was a hornito that generally emitted weak gas-and-steam emissions, sometimes associated with “gas rings”. On 22 April another field inspection was carried out that reported two large sliding surfaces on the Sciara del Fuoco that showed where blocks frequently descended toward the sea. A thermal anomaly was detected at 0150 on 29 April.

Geologic Background. Spectacular incandescent nighttime explosions at Stromboli have long attracted visitors to the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean" in the NE Aeolian Islands. This volcano has lent its name to the frequent mild explosive activity that has characterized its eruptions throughout much of historical time. The small island is the emergent summit of a volcano that grew in two main eruptive cycles, the last of which formed the western portion of the island. The Neostromboli eruptive period took place between about 13,000 and 5,000 years ago. The active summit vents are located at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a prominent scarp that formed about 5,000 years ago due to a series of slope failures which extends to below sea level. The modern volcano has been constructed within this scarp, which funnels pyroclastic ejecta and lava flows to the NW. Essentially continuous mild Strombolian explosions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded for more than a millennium.

Information Contacts: Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Sezione di Catania, Piazza Roma 2, 95123 Catania, Italy, (URL: http://www.ct.ingv.it/en/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Nishinoshima is a small island located about 1,000 km S of Tokyo in the Ogasawara Arc in Japan. The island is the summit of a massive submarine volcano that has prominent peaks to the S, W, and NE. Eruptions date back to 1973; the most recent eruption period began in October 2022 and was characterized by ash plumes and fumarolic activity (BGVN 47:12). This report describes ash plumes and fumarolic activity during November 2022 through April 2023 based on monthly reports from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) monthly reports and satellite data.

The most recent eruptive activity prior to the reporting internal occurred on 12 October 2022, when an ash plume rose 3.5 km above the crater rim. An aerial observation conducted by the Japan Coast Guard (JCG) on 25 November reported that white fumaroles rose approximately 200 m above the central crater of a pyroclastic cone (figure 119), and multiple plumes were observed on the ESE flank of the cone. Discolored water ranging from reddish-brown to brown and yellowish-green were visible around the perimeter of the island (figure 119). No significant activity was reported in December.

Figure 119. Aerial photo of gas-and-steam plumes rising 200 m above Nishinoshima on 25 November 2022. Reddish brown to brown and yellowish-green discolored water was visible around the perimeter of the island. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, November 2022).

During an overflight conducted by JCG on 25 January 2023 intermittent activity and small, blackish-gray plumes rose 900 m above the central part of the crater were observed (figure 120). The fumarolic zone of the E flank and base of the cone had expanded and emissions had intensified. Dark brown discolored water was visible around the perimeter of the island.

Figure 120. Aerial photo of a black-gray ash plume rising approximately 900 m above the crater rim of Nishinoshima on 25 January 2023. White fumaroles were visible on the E slope of the pyroclastic cone. Dense brown to brown discolored water was observed surrounding the island. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, January, 2023).

No significant activity was reported during February through March. Ash plumes at 1050 and 1420 on 11 April rose 1.9 km above the crater rim and drifted NW and N. These were the first ash plumes observed since 12 October 2022. On 14 April JCG carried out an overflight and reported that no further eruptive activity was visible, although white gas-and-steam plumes were visible from the central crater and rose 900 m high (figure 121). Brownish and yellow-green discolored water surrounded the island.

Figure 121. Aerial photo of white gas-and-steam plumes rising 900 m above Nishinoshima on 14 April 2023. Brown and yellow-green discolored water is visible around the perimeter of the island. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, April, 2023).

Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were recorded in the MIROVA graph (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 123). A cluster of six to eight anomalies were detected during November while a smaller number were detected during the following months: two to three during December, one during mid-January 2023, one during February, five during March, and two during April. Thermal activity was also reflected in infrared satellite data at the summit crater, accompanied by occasional gas-and-steam plumes (figure 124).

Figure 123. Intermittent low-to-moderate thermal anomalies were detected at Nishinoshima during November 2022 through April 2023, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). A cluster of anomalies occurred throughout November, while fewer anomalies were detected during the following months. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 124. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images show a small thermal anomaly at the summit crater of Nishinoshima on 9 January 2023 (left) and 8 February 2023 (right). Gas-and-steam plumes accompanied this activity and extended S and SE, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The small island of Nishinoshima was enlarged when several new islands coalesced during an eruption in 1973-74. Multiple eruptions that began in 2013 completely covered the previous exposed surface and continued to enlarge the island. The island is the summit of a massive submarine volcano that has prominent peaks to the S, W, and NE. The summit of the southern cone rises to within 214 m of the ocean surface 9 km SSE.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 1-3-4 Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Karangetang (also known as Api Siau), at the northern end of the island of Siau, Indonesia, contains five summit craters along a N-S line. More than 40 eruptions have been recorded since 1675; recent eruptions have included frequent explosive activity, sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters and collapses of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows. The two active summit craters are Kawah Dua (the N crater) and Kawah Utama (the S crater, also referred to as the “Main Crater”). The most recent eruption began in late November 2018 and has more recently consisted of weak thermal activity and gas-and-steam emissions (BGVN 48:01). This report updates activity characterized by lava flows, incandescent avalanches, and ash plumes during January through June 2023 using reports from Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM, or the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin VAAC (Volcano Ash Advisory Center), and satellite data.

Activity during January was relatively low and mainly consisted of white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 25-150 m above Main Crater (S crater) and drifted in different directions. Incandescence was visible from the lava dome in Kawah Dua (the N crater). Weather conditions often prevented clear views of the summit. On 18 January the number of seismic signals that indicated avalanches of material began to increase. In addition, there were a total of 71 earthquakes detected during the month.

Activity continued to increase during the first week of February. Material from Main Crater traveled as far as 800 m down the Batuawang (S) and Batang (W) drainages and as far as 1 km W down the Beha (W) drainage on 4 February. On 6 February 43 earthquake events were recorded, and on 7 February, 62 events were recorded. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 25-250 m above both summit craters throughout the month. PVMBG reported an eruption began during the evening of 8 February around 1700. Photos showed incandescent material at Main Crater. Incandescent material had also descended the flank in at least two unconfirmed directions as far as 2 km from Main Crater, accompanied by ash plumes (figure 60). As a result, PVMBG increased the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) to 3 (the second highest level on a 1-4 scale).

Figure 60. Photos of the eruption at Karangetang on 8 February 2023 that consisted of incandescent material descending the flanks (top left), ash plumes (top right and bottom left), and summit crater incandescence (bottom right). Courtesy of IDN Times.

Occasional nighttime webcam images showed three main incandescent lava flows of differing lengths traveling down the S, SW, and W flanks (figure 61). Incandescent rocks were visible on the upper flanks, possibly from ejected or collapsed material from the crater, and incandescence was the most intense at the summit. Based on analyses of satellite imagery and weather models, the Darwin VAAC reported that daily ash plumes during 16-20 February rose to 2.1-3 km altitude and drifted NNE, E, and SE. BNPB reported on 16 February that as many as 77 people were evacuated and relocated to the East Siau Museum. A webcam image taken at 2156 on 17 February possibly showed incandescent material descending the SE flank. Ash plumes rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted SE during 22-23 February, according to the Darwin VAAC.

Figure 61. Webcam image of summit incandescence and lava flows descending the S, SW, and W flanks of Karangetang on 13 February 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Incandescent avalanches of material and summit incandescence at Main Crater continued during March. White gas-and-steam emissions during March generally rose 25-150 m above the summit crater; on 31 March gas-and-steam emissions rose 200-400 m high. An ash plume rose to 2.4 km altitude and drifted S at 1710 on 9 March and a large thermal anomaly was visible in images taken at 0550 and 0930 on 10 March. Incandescent material was visible at the summit and on the flanks based on webcam images taken at 0007 and 2345 on 16 March, at 1828 on 17 March, at 1940 on 18 March, at 2311 on 19 March, and at 2351 on 20 March. Incandescence was most intense on 18 and 20 March and webcam images showed possible Strombolian explosions (figure 62). An ash plume rose to 2.4 km altitude and drifted SW on 18 March, accompanied by a thermal anomaly.

Figure 62. Webcam image of intense summit incandescence and incandescent avalanches descending the flanks of Karangetang on 18 March 2023. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Summit crater incandescence at Main Crater and on the flanks persisted during April. Incandescent material at the S crater and on the flanks was reported at 0016 on 1 April. The lava flows had stopped by 1 April according to PVMBG, although incandescence was still visible up to 10 m high. Seismic signals indicating effusion decreased and by 6 April they were no longer detected. Incandescence was visible from both summit craters. On 26 April the VAL was lowered to 2 (the second lowest level on a 1-4 scale). White gas-and-steam emissions rose 25-200 m above the summit crater.

During May white gas-and-steam emissions generally rose 50-250 m above the summit, though it was often cloudy, which prevented clear views; on 21 May gas-and-steam emissions rose 50-400 m high. Nighttime N summit crater incandescence rose 10-25 m above the lava dome, and less intense incandescence was noted above Main Crater, which reached about 10 m above the dome. Sounds of falling rocks at Main Crater were heard on 15 May and the seismic network recorded 32 rockfall events in the crater on 17 May. Avalanches traveled as far as 1.5 km down the SW and S flanks, accompanied by rumbling sounds on 18 May. Incandescent material descending the flanks was captured in a webcam image at 2025 on 19 May (figure 63) and on 29 May; summit crater incandescence was observed in webcam images at 2332 on 26 May and at 2304 on 29 May. On 19 May the VAL was again raised to 3.

Figure 63. Webcam image showing incandescent material descending the flanks of Karangetang on 19 May 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Occasional Main Crater incandescence was reported during June, as well as incandescent material on the flanks. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 10-200 m above the summit crater. Ash plumes rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted SE and E during 2-4 June, according to the Darwin VAAC. Material on the flanks of Main Crater were observed at 2225 on 7 June, at 2051 on 9 June, at 0007 on 17 June, and at 0440 on 18 June. Webcam images taken on 21, 25, and 27 June showed incandescence at Main Crater and from material on the flanks.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed strong thermal activity during mid-February through March and mid-May through June, which represented incandescent avalanches and lava flows (figure 64). During April through mid-May the power of the anomalies decreased but frequent anomalies were still detected. Brief gaps in activity occurred during late March through early April and during mid-June. Infrared satellite images showed strong lava flows mainly affecting the SW and S flanks, accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions (figure 65). According to data recorded by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, there were a total of 79 thermal hotspots detected: 28 during February, 24 during March, one during April, five during May, and 21 during June.

Figure 64. Strong thermal activity was detected during mid-February 2023 through March and mid-May through June at Karangetang during January through June 2023, as recorded by this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). During April through mid-May the power of the anomalies decreased, but the frequency at which they occurred was still relatively high. A brief gap in activity was shown during mid-June. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 65. Incandescent avalanches of material and summit crater incandescence was visible in infrared satellite images (bands 12, 11, 8A) at both the N and S summit crater of Karangetang on 17 February 2023 (top left), 13 April 2023 (top right), 28 May 2023 (bottom left), and 7 June 2023 (bottom right), as shown in these infrared (bands 12, 11, 8A) satellite images. The incandescent avalanches mainly affected the SW and S flanks. Sometimes gas-and-steam plumes accompanied the thermal activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Karangetang (Api Siau) volcano lies at the northern end of the island of Siau, about 125 km NNE of the NE-most point of Sulawesi. The stratovolcano contains five summit craters along a N-S line. It is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, with more than 40 eruptions recorded since 1675 and many additional small eruptions that were not documented (Neumann van Padang, 1951). Twentieth-century eruptions have included frequent explosive activity sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters; collapse of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); IDN Times, Jl. Jend. Gatot Subroto Kav. 27 3rd Floor Kuningan, Jakarta, Indonesia 12950, Status of Karangetang Volcano in Sitaro Islands Increases (URL: https://sulsel.idntimes.com/news/indonesia/savi/status-gunung-api-karangetang-di-kepulauan-sitaro-meningkat?page=all).

Ahyi seamount is a large, conical submarine volcano that rises to within 75 m of the ocean surface about 18 km SE of the island of Farallon de Pajaros in the Northern Marianas. The remote location of the seamount has made eruptions difficult to document, but seismic stations installed in the region confirmed an eruption in the vicinity in 2001. No new activity was detected until April-May 2014 when an eruption was detected by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) divers, hydroacoustic sensors, and seismic stations (BGVN 42:04). New activity was first detected on 15 November by hydroacoustic sensors that were consistent with submarine volcanic activity. This report covers activity during November 2022 through June 2023 based on daily and weekly reports from the US Geological Survey.

Starting in mid-October, hydroacoustic sensors at Wake Island (2.2 km E) recorded signals consistent with submarine volcanic activity, according to a report from the USGS issued on 15 November 2022. A combined analysis of the hydroacoustic signals and seismic stations located at Guam and Chichijima Island, Japan, suggested that the source of this activity was at or near the Ahyi seamount. After a re-analysis of a satellite image of the area that was captured on 6 November, USGS confirmed that there was no evidence of discoloration at the ocean surface. Few hydroacoustic and seismic signals continued through November, including on 18 November, which USGS suggested signified a decline or pause in unrest. A VONA (Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation) reported that a discolored water plume was persistently visible in satellite data starting on 18 November (figure 6). Though clouds often obscured clear views of the volcano, another discolored water plume was captured in a satellite image on 26 November. The Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) and the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) was raised to Advisory (the second lowest level on a four-level scale) on 29 November.

Figure 6. A clear, true color satellite image showed a yellow-green discolored water plume extending NW from the Ahyi seamount (white arrow) on 21 November 2022. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

During December, occasional detections were recorded on the Wake Island hydrophone sensors and discolored water over the seamount remained visible. During 2-7, 10-12, and 16-31 December possible explosion signals were detected. A small area of discolored water was observed in high-resolution Sentinel-2 satellite images during 1-6 December (figure 7). High-resolution satellite images recorded discolored water plumes on 13 December that originated from the summit region; no observations indicated that activity breached the ocean surface. A possible underwater plume was visible in satellite images on 18 December, and during 19-20 December a definite but diffuse underwater plume located SSE from the main vent was reported. An underwater plume was visible in a satellite image taken on 26 December (figure 7).

Figure 7. Clear, true color satellite images showed yellow-green discolored water plumes extending NE and W from Ahyi (white arrows) on 1 (left) and 26 (right) December 2022, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Hydrophone sensors continued to detect signals consistent with possible explosions during 1-8 January 2023. USGS reported that the number of detections decreased during 4-5 January. The hydrophone sensors experienced a data outage that started at 0118 on 8 January and continued through 10 January, though according to USGS, possible explosions were recorded prior to the data outage and likely continued during the outage. A discolored water plume originating from the summit region was detected in a partly cloudy satellite image on 8 January. On 11-12 and 15-17 January possible explosion signals were recorded again. One small signal was detected during 22-23 January and several signals were recorded on 25 and 31 January. During 27-31 January a plume of discolored water was observed above the seamount in satellite imagery (figure 8).

Figure 8. True color satellite images showed intermittent yellow-green discolored water plumes of various sizes extending N on 5 January 2023 (top left), SE on 30 January 2023 (top right), W on 4 February 2023 (bottom left), and SW on 1 March 2023 (bottom right) from Ahyi (white arrows). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Low levels of activity continued during February and March, based on data from pressure sensors on Wake Island. During 1 and 4-6 February activity was reported, and a submarine plume was observed on 4 February (figure 8). Possible explosion signals were detected during 7-8, 10, 13-14, and 24 February. During 1-2 and 3-5 March a plume of discolored water was observed in satellite imagery (figure 8). Almost continuous hydroacoustic signals were detected in remote pressure sensor data on Wake Island 2,270 km E from the volcano during 7-13 March. During 12-13 March water discoloration around the seamount was observed in satellite imagery, despite cloudy weather. By 14 March discolored water extended about 35 km, but no direction was noted. USGS reported that the continuous hydroacoustic signals detected during 13-14 March stopped abruptly on 14 March and no new detections were observed. Three 30 second hydroacoustic detections were reported during 17-19 March, but no activity was visible due to cloudy weather. A data outage was reported during 21-22 March, making pressure sensor data unavailable; a discolored water plume was, however, visible in satellite data. A possible underwater explosion signal was detected by pressure sensors at Wake Island on 26, 29, and 31 March, though the cause and origin of these events were unclear.

Similar low activity continued during April, May, and June. Several signals were detected during 1-3 April in pressure sensors at Wake Island. USGS suggested that these may be related to underwater explosions or earthquakes at the volcano, but no underwater plumes were visible in clear satellite images. The pressure sensors had data outages during 12-13 April and no data were recorded; no underwater plumes were visible in satellite images, although cloudy weather obscured most clear views. Eruptive activity was reported starting at 2210 on 21 May. On 22 May a discolored water plume that extended 4 km was visible in satellite images, though no direction was recorded. During 23-24 May some signals were detected by the underwater pressure sensors. Possible hydroacoustic signals were detected during 2-3 and 6-8 June. Multiple hydroacoustic signals were detected during 9-11 and 16-17 June, although no activity was visible in satellite images. One hydroacoustic signal was detected during 23-24 June, but there was some uncertainty about its association with volcanic activity. A single possible hydroacoustic signal was detected during 30 June to 1 July.

Geologic Background. Ahyi seamount is a large conical submarine volcano that rises to within 75 m of the ocean surface ~18 km SE of the island of Farallon de Pajaros in the northern Marianas. Water discoloration has been observed there, and in 1979 the crew of a fishing boat felt shocks over the summit area, followed by upwelling of sulfur-bearing water. On 24-25 April 2001 an explosive eruption was detected seismically by a station on Rangiroa Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago. The event was well constrained (+/- 15 km) at a location near the southern base of Ahyi. An eruption in April-May 2014 was detected by NOAA divers, hydroacoustic sensors, and seismic stations.

Information Contacts: US Geological Survey, Volcano Hazards Program (USGS-VHP), 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, VA, USA, https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/index.html; Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Kadovar is a 2-km-wide island that is the emergent summit of a Bismarck Sea stratovolcano. It lies off the coast of New Guinea, about 25 km N of the mouth of the Sepik River. Prior to an eruption that began in 2018, a lava dome formed the high point of the volcano, filling an arcuate landslide scarp open to the S. Submarine debris-avalanche deposits occur to the S of the island. The current eruption began in January 2018 and has comprised lava effusion from vents at the summit and at the E coast; more recent activity has consisted of ash plumes, weak thermal activity, and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 48:02). This report covers activity during February through May 2023 using information from the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and satellite data.

Activity during the reporting period was relatively low and mainly consisted of white gas-and-steam plumes that were visible in natural color satellite images on clear weather days (figure 67). According to a Darwin VAAC report, at 2040 on 6 May an ash plume rose to 4.6 km altitude and drifted W; by 2300 the plume had dissipated. MODIS satellite instruments using the MODVOLC thermal algorithm detected a single thermal hotspot on the SE side of the island on 7 May. Weak thermal activity was also detected in a satellite image on the E side of the island on 14 May, accompanied by a white gas-and-steam plume that drifted SE (figure 68).

Figure 67. True color satellite images showing a white gas-and-steam plume rising from Kadovar on 28 February 2023 (left) and 30 March 2023 (right) and drifting SE and S, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 68. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) image showing weak thermal activity on the E side of the island, accompanied by a gas-and-steam plume that drifted SE from Kadovar on 14 May 2023. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The 2-km-wide island of Kadovar is the emergent summit of a Bismarck Sea stratovolcano of Holocene age. It is part of the Schouten Islands, and lies off the coast of New Guinea, about 25 km N of the mouth of the Sepik River. Prior to an eruption that began in 2018, a lava dome formed the high point of the andesitic volcano, filling an arcuate landslide scarp open to the south; submarine debris-avalanche deposits occur in that direction. Thick lava flows with columnar jointing forms low cliffs along the coast. The youthful island lacks fringing or offshore reefs. A period of heightened thermal phenomena took place in 1976. An eruption began in January 2018 that included lava effusion from vents at the summit and at the E coast.

Information Contacts: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

San Miguel in El Salvador is a broad, deep crater complex that has been frequently modified by eruptions recorded since the early 16th century and consists of the summit known locally as Chaparrastique. Flank eruptions have produced lava flows that extended to the N, NE, and SE during the 17-19th centuries. The most recent activity has consisted of minor ash eruptions from the summit crater. The current eruption period began in November 2022 and has been characterized by frequent phreatic explosions, gas-and-ash emissions, and sulfur dioxide plumes (BGVN 47:12). This report describes small gas-and-ash explosions during December 2022 through May 2023 based on special reports from the Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN).

Activity has been relatively low since the last recorded explosions on 29 November 2022. Seismicity recorded by the San Miguel Volcano Station (VSM) located on the N flank at 1.7 km elevation had decreased by 7 December. Sulfur dioxide gas measurements taken with DOAS (Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy) mobile equipment were below typical previously recorded values: 300 tons per day (t/d). During December, small explosions were recorded by the seismic network and manifested as gas-and-steam emissions.

Gas-and-ash explosions in the crater occurred during January 2023, which were recorded by the seismic network. Sulfur dioxide values remained low, between 300-400 t/d through 10 March. At 0817 on 14 January a gas-and-ash emission was visible in webcam images, rising just above the crater rim. Some mornings during February, small gas-and-steam plumes were visible in the crater. On 7 March at 2252 MARN noted an increase in degassing from the central crater; gas emissions were constantly observed through the early morning hours on 8 March. During the early morning of 8 March through the afternoon on 9 March, 12 emissions were registered, some accompanied by ash. The last gas-and-ash emission was recorded at 1210 on 9 March; very fine ashfall was reported in El Tránsito (10 km S), La Morita (6 km W), and La Piedrita (3 km W). The smell of sulfur was reported in Piedra Azul (5 km SW). On 16 March MARN reported that gas-and-steam emissions decreased.

Low degassing and very low seismicity were reported during April; no explosions have been detected between 9 March and 27 May. The sulfur dioxide emissions remained between 350-400 t/d; during 13-20 April sulfur dioxide values fluctuated between 30-300 t/d. Activity remained low through most of May; on 23 May seismicity increased. An explosion was detected at 1647 on 27 May generated a gas-and-ash plume that rose 700 m high (figure 32); a decrease in seismicity and gas emissions followed. The DOAS station installed on the W flank recorded sulfur dioxide values that reached 400 t/d on 27 May; subsequent measurements showed a decrease to 268 t/d on 28 May and 100 t/d on 29 May.

Figure 32. Webcam image of a gas-and-ash plume rising 700 m above San Miguel at 1652 on 27 May 2023. Courtesy of MARN.

Geologic Background. The symmetrical cone of San Miguel, one of the most active volcanoes in El Salvador, rises from near sea level to form one of the country's most prominent landmarks. A broad, deep, crater complex that has been frequently modified by eruptions recorded since the early 16th century caps the truncated unvegetated summit, also known locally as Chaparrastique. Flanks eruptions of the basaltic-andesitic volcano have produced many lava flows, including several during the 17th-19th centuries that extended to the N, NE, and SE. The SE-flank flows are the largest and form broad, sparsely vegetated lava fields crossed by highways and a railroad skirting the base of the volcano. Flank vent locations have migrated higher on the edifice during historical time, and the most recent activity has consisted of minor ash eruptions from the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN), Km. 5½ Carretera a Nueva San Salvador, Avenida las Mercedes, San Salvador, El Salvador (URL: http://www.snet.gob.sv/ver/vulcanologia).

Semisopochnoi is located in the western Aleutians, is 20-km-wide at sea level, and contains an 8-km-wide caldera. The three-peaked Mount Young (formerly Cerberus) was constructed within the caldera during the Holocene. Each of these peaks contains a summit crater; the lava flows on the N flank appear younger than those on the S side. The current eruption period began in early February 2021 and has more recently consisted of intermittent explosions and ash emissions (BGVN 47:12). This report updates activity during December 2022 through May 2023 using daily, weekly, and special reports from the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO). AVO monitors the volcano using local seismic and infrasound sensors, satellite data, web cameras, and remote infrasound and lightning networks.

Activity during most of December 2022 was relatively quiet; according to AVO no eruptive or explosive activity was observed since 7 November 2022. Intermittent tremor and occasional small earthquakes were observed in geophysical data. Continuous gas-and-steam emissions were observed from the N crater of Mount Young in webcam images on clear weather days (figure 25). On 24 December, there was a slight increase in earthquake activity and several small possible explosion signals were detected in infrasound data. Eruptive activity resumed on 27 December at the N crater of Mount Young; AVO issued a Volcano Activity Notice (VAN) that reported minor ash deposits on the flanks of Mount Young that extended as far as 1 km from the vent, according to webcam images taken during 27-28 December (figure 26). No ash plumes were observed in webcam or satellite imagery, but a persistent gas-and-steam plume that might have contained some ash rose to 1.5 km altitude. As a result, AVO raised the Aviation Color Code (ACC) to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale) and the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) to Watch (the second highest level on a four-level scale). Possible explosions were detected during 21 December 2022 through 1 January 2023 and seismic tremor was recorded during 30-31 December.

Figure 25. Webcam image of a gas-and-steam plume rising above Semisopochnoi from Mount Young on 21 December 2022. Courtesy of AVO.

Figure 26. Webcam image showing fresh ash deposits (black color) at the summit and on the flanks of Mount Young at Semisopochnoi, extending up to 1 km from the N crater. Image was taken on 27 December 2022. Image has been color corrected. Courtesy of AVO.

During January 2023 eruptive activity continued at the active N crater of Mount Young. Minor ash deposits were observed on the flanks, extending about 2 km SSW, based on webcam images from 1 and 3 January. A possible explosion occurred during 1-2 January based on elevated seismicity recorded on local seismometers and an infrasound signal recorded minutes later by an array at Adak. Though no ash plumes were observed in webcam or satellite imagery, a persistent gas-and-steam plume rose to 1.5 km altitude that might have carried minor traces of ash. Ash deposits were accompanied by periods of elevated seismicity and infrasound signals from the local geophysical network, which AVO reported were likely due to weak explosive activity. Low-level explosive activity was also detected during 2-3 January, with minor gas-and-steam emissions and a new ash deposit that was visible in webcam images. Low-level explosive activity was detected in geophysical data during 4-5 January, with elevated seismicity and infrasound signals observed on local stations. Volcanic tremor was detected during 7-9 January and very weak explosive activity was detected in seismic and infrasound data on 9 January. Weak seismic and infrasound signals were recorded on 17 January, which indicated minor explosive activity, but no ash emissions were observed in clear webcam images; a gas-and-steam plume continued to rise to 1.5 km altitude. During 29-30 January, ash deposits near the summit were observed on fresh snow, according to webcam images.

The active N cone at Mount Young continued to produce a gas-and-steam plume during February, but no ash emissions or explosive events were detected. Seismicity remained elevated with faint tremor during early February. Gas-and-steam emissions from the N crater were observed in clear webcam images on 11-13 and 16 February; no explosive activity was detected in seismic, infrasound, or satellite data. Seismicity has also decreased, with no significant seismic tremor observed since 25 January. Therefore, the ACC was lowered to Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) and the VAL was lowered to Advisory (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) on 22 February.

Gas-and-steam emissions persisted during March from the N cone of Mount Young, based on clear webcam images. A few brief episodes of weak tremor were detected in seismic data, although seismicity decreased over the month. A gas-and-steam plume detected in satellite data extended 150 km on 18 March. Low-level ash emissions from the N cone at Mount Young were observed in several webcam images during 18-19 March, in addition to small explosions and volcanic tremor. The ACC was raised to Orange and the VAL increased to Watch on 19 March. A small explosion was detected in seismic and infrasound data on 21 March.

Low-level unrest continued during April, although cloudy weather often obscured views of the summit; periods of seismic tremor and local earthquakes were recorded. During 3-4 April a gas-and-steam plume was visible traveling more than 200 km overnight; no ash was evident in the plume, according to AVO. A gas-and-steam plume was observed during 4-6 April that extended 400 km but did not seem to contain ash. Small explosions were detected in seismic and infrasound data on 5 April. Occasional clear webcam images showed continuing gas-and-steam emissions rose from Mount Young, but no ash deposits were observed on the snow. On 19 April small explosions and tremor were detected in seismic and infrasound data. A period of seismic tremor was detected during 22-25 April, with possible weak explosions on 25 April. Ash deposits were visible near the crater rim, but it was unclear if these deposits were recent or due to older deposits.

Occasional small earthquakes were recorded during May, but there were no signs of explosive activity seen in geophysical data. Gas-and-steam emissions continued from the N crater of Mount Young, based on webcam images, and seismicity remained slightly elevated. A new, light ash deposit was visible during the morning of 5 May on fresh snow on the NW flank of Mount Young. During 10 May periods of volcanic tremor were observed. The ACC was lowered to Yellow and the VAL to Advisory on 17 May due to no additional evidence of activity.

Geologic Background. Semisopochnoi, the largest subaerial volcano of the western Aleutians, is 20 km wide at sea level and contains an 8-km-wide caldera. It formed as a result of collapse of a low-angle, dominantly basaltic volcano following the eruption of a large volume of dacitic pumice. The high point of the island is Anvil Peak, a double-peaked late-Pleistocene cone that forms much of the island's northern part. The three-peaked Mount Cerberus (renamed Mount Young in 2023) was constructed within the caldera during the Holocene. Each of the peaks contains a summit crater; lava flows on the N flank appear younger than those on the south side. Other post-caldera volcanoes include the symmetrical Sugarloaf Peak SSE of the caldera and Lakeshore Cone, a small cinder cone at the edge of Fenner Lake in the NE part of the caldera. Most documented eruptions have originated from Young, although Coats (1950) considered that both Sugarloaf and Lakeshore Cone could have been recently active.

Information Contacts: Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of a) U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667 USA (URL: https://avo.alaska.edu/), b) Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA, and c) Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA (URL: http://dggs.alaska.gov/).

Ebeko, located on the N end of Paramushir Island in the Kuril Islands, consists of three summit craters along a SSW-NNE line at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Eruptions date back to the late 18th century and have been characterized as small-to-moderate explosions from the summit crater, accompanied by intense fumarolic activity. The current eruption period began in June 2022 and has recently consisted of frequent explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:10). This report covers similar activity during October 2022 through May 2023, based on information from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

Activity during October consisted of explosive activity, ash plumes, and occasional thermal anomalies. Visual data by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk showed explosions producing ash clouds up to 2.1-3 km altitude which drifted E, N, NE, and SE during 1-8, 10, 16, and 18 October. KVERT issued several Volcano Observatory Notices for Aviation (VONA) on 7, 13-15, and 27 October 2022, stating that explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 2.3-4 km altitude and drifted 5 km E, NE, and SE. Ashfall was reported in Severo-Kurilsk (Paramushir Island, about 7 km E) on 7 and 13 October. Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly over the volcano on 15-16 October. Visual data showed ash plumes rising to 2.5-3.6 km altitude on 22, 25-29, and 31 October and moving NE due to constant explosions.

Similar activity continued during November, with explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall occurring. KVERT issued VONAs on 1-2, 4, 6-7, 9, 13, and 16 November that reported explosions and resulting ash plumes that rose to 1.7-3.6 km altitude and drifted 3-5 km SE, ESE, E, and NE. On 1 November ash plumes extended as far as 110 km SE. On 5, 8, 12, and 24-25 November explosions and ash plumes rose to 2-3.1 km altitude and drifted N and E. Ashfall was observed in Severo-Kurilsk on 7 and 16 November. A thermal anomaly was visible during 1-4, 16, and 20 November. Explosions during 26 November rose as high as 2.7 km altitude and drifted NE (figure 45).

Figure 45. Photo of an ash plume rising to 2.7 km altitude above Ebeko on 26 November 2022. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

Explosions and ash plumes continued to occur in December. During 1-2 and 4 December volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk observed explosions that sent ash to 1.9-2.5 km altitude and drifted NE and SE (figure 46). VONAs were issued on 5, 9, and 16 December reporting that explosions generated ash plumes rising to 1.9 km, 2.6 km, and 2.4 km altitude and drifted 5 km SE, E, and NE, respectively. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite imagery on 16 December. On 18 and 27-28 December explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2.5 km altitude and drifted NE and SE. On 31 December an ash plume rose to 2 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure 46. Photo of an explosive event at Ebeko at 1109 on 2 December 2022. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by S. Lakomov, IVS FEB RAS.

Explosions continued during January 2023, based on visual observations by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk. During 1-7 January explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted NE, E, W, and SE. According to VONAs issued by KVERT on 2, 4, 10, and 23 January, explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2-4 km altitude and drifted 5 km N, NE, E, and ENE; the ash plume that rose to 4 km altitude occurred on 10 January (figure 47). Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly during 3-4, 10, 13, 16, 21, 22, and 31 January. KVERT reported that an ash cloud on 4 January moved 12 km NE. On 6 and 9-11 January explosions sent ash plumes to 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and ESE. On 13 January an ash plume rose to 3 km altitude and drifted SE. During 20-24 January ash plumes from explosions rose to 3.7 km altitude and drifted SE, N, and NE. On 21 January the ash plume drifted as far as 40 km NE. During 28-29 and 31 January and 1 February ash plumes rose to 4 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure 47. Photo of a strong ash plume rising to 4 km altitude from an explosive event on 10 January 2023 (local time). Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

During February, explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall were reported. During 1, 4-5 and 7-8 February explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 4.5 km altitude and drifted E and NE; ashfall was observed on 5 and 8 February. On 6 February an explosion produced an ash plume that rose to 3 km altitude and drifted 7 km E, causing ashfall in Severo-Kurilsk. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite data on 8, 9, 13, and 21 February. Explosions on 9 and 12-13 February produced ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted E and NE; the ash cloud on 12 February extended as far as 45 km E. On 22 February explosions sent ash to 3 km altitude that drifted E. During 24 and 26-27 February ash plumes rose to 4 km altitude and drifted E. On 28 February an explosion sent ash to 2.5-3 km altitude and drifted 5 km E; ashfall was observed in Severo-Kurilsk.

Activity continued during March; visual observations showed that explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 3.6 km altitude on 3, 5-7, and 9-12 March and drifted E, NE, and NW. Thermal anomalies were visible on 10, 13, and 29-30 March in satellite imagery. On 18, 21-23, 26, and 29-30 March explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2.8 km altitude and drifted NE and E; the ash plumes during 22-23 March extended up to 76 km E. A VONA issued on 21 March reported an explosion that produced an ash plume that rose to 2.8 km altitude and drifted 5 km E. Another VONA issued on 23 March reported that satellite data showed an ash plume rising to 3 km altitude and drifted 14 km E.

Explosions during April continued to generate ash plumes. On 1 and 4 April an ash plume rose to 2.8-3.5 km altitude and drifted SE and NE. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite imagery during 1-6 April. Satellite data showed ash plumes and clouds rising to 2-3 km altitude and drifting up to 12 km SW and E on 3 and 6 April (figure 48). KVERT issued VONAs on 3, 5, 14, 16 April describing explosions that produced ash plumes rising to 3 km, 3.5 km, 3.5 km, and 3 km altitude and drifting 5 km S, 5 km NE and SE, 72 km NNE, and 5 km NE, respectively. According to satellite data, the resulting ash cloud from the explosion on 14 April was 25 x 7 km in size and drifted 72-104 km NNE during 14-15 April. According to visual data by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk explosions sent ash up to 3.5 km altitude that drifted NE and E during 15-16, 22, 25-26, and 29 April.

Figure 48. Photo of an ash cloud rising to 3.5 km altitude at Ebeko on 6 April 2023. The cloud extended up to 12 km SW and E. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

The explosive eruption continued during May. Explosions during 3-4, 6-7, and 9-10 May generated ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted SW and E. Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly on 3, 9, 13-14, and 24 May. During 12-16, 23-25, and 27-28 May ash plumes rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted in different directions due to explosions. Two VONA notices were issued on 16 and 25 May, describing explosions that generated ash plumes rising to 3 km and 3.5 km altitude, respectively and extending 5 km E. The ash cloud on 25 May drifted 75 km SE.

Thermal activity in the summit crater, occasionally accompanied by ash plumes and ash deposits on the SE and E flanks due to frequent explosions, were visible in infrared and true color satellite images (figure 49).

Figure 49. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) and true color satellite images of Ebeko showing occasional small thermal anomalies at the summit crater on 4 October 2022 (top left), 30 April 2023 (bottom left), and 27 May 2023 (bottom right). On 1 November (top right) ash deposits (light-to-dark gray) were visible on the SE flank. An ash plume drifted NE on 30 April, and ash deposits were also visible to the E on both 30 April and 27 May. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The flat-topped summit of the central cone of Ebeko volcano, one of the most active in the Kuril Islands, occupies the northern end of Paramushir Island. Three summit craters located along a SSW-NNE line form Ebeko volcano proper, at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Blocky lava flows extend west from Ebeko and SE from the neighboring Nezametnyi cone. The eastern part of the southern crater contains strong solfataras and a large boiling spring. The central crater is filled by a lake about 20 m deep whose shores are lined with steaming solfataras; the northern crater lies across a narrow, low barrier from the central crater and contains a small, cold crescentic lake. Historical activity, recorded since the late-18th century, has been restricted to small-to-moderate explosive eruptions from the summit craters. Intense fumarolic activity occurs in the summit craters, on the outer flanks of the cone, and in lateral explosion craters.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Home Reef is a submarine volcano located in the central Tonga islands between Lateiki (Metis Shoal) and Late Island. The first recorded eruption occurred in the mid-19th century, when an ephemeral island formed. An eruption in 1984 produced a 12-km-high eruption plume, a large volume of floating pumice, and an ephemeral island 500 x 1,500 m wide, with cliffs 30-50 m high that enclosed a water-filled crater. Another island-forming eruption in 2006 produced widespread pumice rafts that drifted as far as Australia; by 2008 the island had eroded below sea level. The previous eruption occurred during October 2022 and was characterized by a new island-forming eruption, lava effusion, ash plumes, discolored water, and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 47:11). This report covers discolored water plumes during November 2022 through April 2023 using satellite data.

Discolored plumes continued during the reporting period and were observed in true color satellite images on clear weather days. Satellite images show light green-yellow discolored water extending W on 8 and 28 November 2022 (figure 31), and SW on 18 November. Light green-yellow plumes extended W on 3 December, S on 13 December, SW on 18 December, and W and S on 23 December (figure 31). On 12 January 2023 discolored green-yellow plumes extended to the NE, E, SE, and N. The plume moved SE on 17 January and NW on 22 January. Faint discolored water in February was visible moving NE on 1 February. A discolored plume extended NW on 8 and 28 March and NW on 13 March (figure 31). During April, clear weather showed green-blue discolored plumes moving S on 2 April, W on 7 April, and NE and S on 12 April. A strong green-yellow discolored plume extended E and NE on 22 April for several kilometers (figure 31).

Figure 31. Visual (true color) satellite images showing continued green-yellow discolored plumes at Home Reef (black circle) that extended W on 28 November 2022 (top left), W and S on 23 December 2022 (top right), NW on 13 March 2023 (bottom left), and E and NE on 22 April 2023 (bottom right). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Home Reef, a submarine volcano midway between Metis Shoal and Late Island in the central Tonga islands, was first reported active in the mid-19th century, when an ephemeral island formed. An eruption in 1984 produced a 12-km-high eruption plume, large amounts of floating pumice, and an ephemeral 500 x 1,500 m island, with cliffs 30-50 m high that enclosed a water-filled crater. In 2006 an island-forming eruption produced widespread dacitic pumice rafts that drifted as far as Australia. Another island was built during a September-October 2022 eruption.

Information Contacts: Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Ambae, also known as Aoba, is a large basaltic shield volcano in Vanuatu. A broad pyroclastic cone containing three crater lakes (Manaro Ngoru, Voui, and Manaro Lakua) is located at the summit within the youngest of at least two nested calderas. Periodic phreatic and pyroclastic explosions have been reported since the 16th century. A large eruption more than 400 years ago resulted in a volcanic cone within the summit crater that is now filled by Lake Voui; the similarly sized Lake Manaro fills the western third of the caldera. The previous eruption ended in August 2022 that was characterized by gas-and-steam and ash emissions and explosions of wet tephra (BGVN 47:10). This report covers a new eruption during February through May 2023 that consisted of a new lava flow, ash plumes, and sulfur dioxide emissions, using information from the Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD) and satellite data.

During the reporting period, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a scale of 0-5), which has been in place since December 2021. Activity during October 2022 through March 2023 remained relatively low and mostly consisted of gas-and-steam emissions in Lake Voui. VMGD reported that at 1300 on 15 November a satellite image captured a strong amount of sulfur dioxide rising above the volcano (figure 99), and that seismicity slightly increased. The southern and northern part of the island reported a strong sulfur dioxide smell and heard explosions. On 20 February 2023 a gas-and-ash plume rose 1.3 km above the summit and drifted SSW, according to a webcam image (figure 100). Gas-and-steam and possibly ash emissions continued on 23 February and volcanic earthquakes were recorded by the seismic network.

Figure 99. Satellite image of the strong sulfur dioxide plume above Ambae taken on 15 November 2022. The Dobson Units (DU) exceeded 12. Courtesy of VMGD.

Figure 100. Webcam image of a gas-and-ash plume rising above Ambae at 1745 on 20 February 2023. The plume drifted SSW. Courtesy of VMGD.

During April, volcanic earthquakes and gas-and-steam and ash emissions were reported from the cone in Lake Voui. VMGD reported that activity increased during 5-7 April; high gas-and-steam and ash plumes were visible, accompanied by nighttime incandescence. According to a Wellington VAAC report, a low-level ash plume rose as high as 2.5 km above the summit and drifted W and SW on 5 April, based on satellite imagery. Reports in Saratamata stated that a dark ash plume drifted to the WSW, but no loud explosion was heard. Webcam images from 2100 showed incandescence above the crater and reflected in the clouds. According to an aerial survey, field observations, and satellite data, water was no longer present in the lake. A lava flow was reported effusing from the vent and traveling N into the dry Lake Voui, which lasted three days. The next morning at 0745 on 6 April a gas-and-steam and ash plume rose 5.4 km above the summit and drifted ESE, based on information from VMGD (figure 101). The Wellington VAAC also reported that light ashfall was observed on the island. Intermittent gas-and-steam and ash emissions were visible on 7 April, some of which rose to an estimated 3 km above the summit and drifted E. Webcam images during 0107-0730 on 7 April showed continuing ash emissions. A gas-and-steam and ash plume rose 695 m above the summit crater at 0730 on 19 April and drifted ESE, based on a webcam image (figure 102).

Figure 101. Webcam image showing a gas-and-ash plume rising 5.4 km above the summit of Ambae at 0745 on 6 April 2023. Courtesy of VMGD.

Figure 102. Webcam image showing a gas-and-ash plume rising 695 m above the summit of Ambae at 0730 on 19 April 2023. Courtesy of VMGD.

According to visual and infrared satellite data, water was visible in Lake Voui as late as 24 March 2023 (figure 103). The vent in the caldera showed a gas-and-steam plume drifted SE. On 3 April thermal activity was first detected, accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted W (figure 103). The lava flow moved N within the dry lake and was shown cooling by 8 April. By 23 April much of the water in the lake had returned. Occasional sulfur dioxide plumes were detected by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite that exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions (figure 104).

Figure 103. Satellite images showing both visual (true color) and infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) views on 24 March 2023 (top left), 3 April 2023 (top left), 8 April 2023 (bottom left), and 23 April 2023 (bottom right). In the image on 24 March, water filled Lake Voui around the small northern lake. A gas-and-steam plume drifted SE. Thermal activity (bright yellow-orange) was first detected in infrared data on 3 April 2023, accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted W. The lava flow slowly filled the northern part of the then-dry lake and remained hot on 8 April. By 23 April, the water in Lake Voui had returned. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 104. Images showing sulfur dioxide plumes rising from Ambae on 26 December 2022 (top left), 25 February 2023 (top right), 23 March 2023 (bottom left), and 5 April 2023 (bottom right), as detected by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite. These plumes exceeded at least 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Geologic Background. The island of Ambae, also known as Aoba, is a massive 2,500 km3 basaltic shield that is the most voluminous volcano of the New Hebrides archipelago. A pronounced NE-SW-trending rift zone with numerous scoria cones gives the 16 x 38 km island an elongated form. A broad pyroclastic cone containing three crater lakes (Manaro Ngoru, Voui, and Manaro Lakua) is located at the summit within the youngest of at least two nested calderas, the largest of which is 6 km in diameter. That large central edifice is also called Manaro Voui or Lombenben volcano. Post-caldera explosive eruptions formed the summit craters about 360 years ago. A tuff cone was constructed within Lake Voui (or Vui) about 60 years later. The latest known flank eruption, about 300 years ago, destroyed the population of the Nduindui area near the western coast.

Information Contacts: Geo-Hazards Division, Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD), Ministry of Climate Change Adaptation, Meteorology, Geo-Hazards, Energy, Environment and Disaster Management, Private Mail Bag 9054, Lini Highway, Port Vila, Vanuatu (URL: http://www.vmgd.gov.vu/, https://www.facebook.com/VanuatuGeohazardsObservatory/); Wellington Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Meteorological Service of New Zealand Ltd (MetService), PO Box 722, Wellington, New Zealand (URL: http://www.metservice.com/vaac/, http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/OTH/NZ/messages.html); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Sixteen explosions occurred . . . in January . . . . No damage was caused by the explosions. The highest ash plume rose 2,900 m on 22 January at 1109. Seismicity remained normal, with two swarms of B-type earthquakes on January 23 (duration 6 hours) and 25 (3 hours).

Geologic Background. The Aira caldera in the northern half of Kagoshima Bay contains the post-caldera Sakurajima volcano, one of Japan's most active. Eruption of the voluminous Ito pyroclastic flow accompanied formation of the 17 x 23 km caldera about 22,000 years ago. The smaller Wakamiko caldera was formed during the early Holocene in the NE corner of the caldera, along with several post-caldera cones. The construction of Sakurajima began about 13,000 years ago on the southern rim and built an island that was joined to the Osumi Peninsula during the major explosive and effusive eruption of 1914. Activity at the Kitadake summit cone ended about 4,850 years ago, after which eruptions took place at Minamidake. Frequent eruptions since the 8th century have deposited ash on the city of Kagoshima, located across Kagoshima Bay only 8 km from the summit. The largest recorded eruption took place during 1471-76.

Information Contacts: JMA.

The lava flow that began to descend SW from Crater C in December remained active. The W lobe had reached 840 m elevation, the S lobe 820 m, covering a grassy area. Lava overflows continued to feed small avalanches. Strombolian explosions from Crater C were weaker and less frequent in January than in December. Fumarolic activity continued from Crater D.

Deflation has continued since deformation measurements began in 1982. The deflation is more evident on dry tilt stations nearest the active crater (at 1.8-3 km distance). Small-scale inflation averaging 9 µrads occurred between measurements in October and December 1992 on stations SW, W, NW, and NE of the summit. Although horizontal distance measurements generally contracted between November 1991 and January 1993, two of five distances expanded ~15 ppm between October and December 1992, coinciding with inflation detected by dry-tilt measurements. Geologists noted that these changes could have been influenced more by lava flows near the reflectors than by magma movements at depth.

Geologic Background. Conical Volcán Arenal is the youngest stratovolcano in Costa Rica and one of its most active. The 1670-m-high andesitic volcano towers above the eastern shores of Lake Arenal, which has been enlarged by a hydroelectric project. Arenal lies along a volcanic chain that has migrated to the NW from the late-Pleistocene Los Perdidos lava domes through the Pleistocene-to-Holocene Chato volcano, which contains a 500-m-wide, lake-filled summit crater. The earliest known eruptions of Arenal took place about 7000 years ago, and it was active concurrently with Cerro Chato until the activity of Chato ended about 3500 years ago. Growth of Arenal has been characterized by periodic major explosive eruptions at several-hundred-year intervals and periods of lava effusion that armor the cone. An eruptive period that began with a major explosive eruption in 1968 ended in December 2010; continuous explosive activity accompanied by slow lava effusion and the occasional emission of pyroclastic flows characterized the eruption from vents at the summit and on the upper western flank.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obadía, T. Marino, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

Field reports confirmed that by 1 January the lake in Crater 1 had dried up. Steam was steadily emitted to ~500 m, with the plume containing ash 13-14 and 17-29 January. A small eruption occurred in the crater on 21 and 22 January, ejecting many scoria blocks to 10-50 m heights from Vent 922. This was the first eruption since 26 October and the first scoria eruption since June 1992. . . . Ejecta fell within the crater, which is 400 m across and 150 m deep. The steam plume, containing ash, rose 1,000 m on the 21st and 1,500 m the 22nd. Seismicity has been relatively high since mid-December, but no significant change was detected before or after the eruption.

Activity continued at the same levels through early February, with steam emission to a few hundred meters, occasionally containing ash.

Geologic Background. The 24-km-wide Asosan caldera was formed during four major explosive eruptions from 300,000 to 90,000 years ago. These produced voluminous pyroclastic flows that covered much of Kyushu. The last of these, the Aso-4 eruption, produced more than 600 km3 of airfall tephra and pyroclastic-flow deposits. A group of 17 central cones was constructed in the middle of the caldera, one of which, Nakadake, is one of Japan's most active volcanoes. It was the location of Japan's first documented historical eruption in 553 CE. The Nakadake complex has remained active throughout the Holocene. Several other cones have been active during the Holocene, including the Kometsuka scoria cone as recently as about 210 CE. Historical eruptions have largely consisted of basaltic to basaltic-andesite ash emission with periodic strombolian and phreatomagmatic activity. The summit crater of Nakadake is accessible by toll road and cable car, and is one of Kyushu's most popular tourist destinations.

Information Contacts: JMA.

Hot mud began fountaining from a new vent (near the Pandawa Lima Temples) area at 0001 on 23 January. The fountaining was heard by residents of a nearby village (Bale Kambang). The hot mud, which emerged from a 5-m-diameter hole, had a temperature of 93°C and reached heights of 2-15 m. Hot mud and steam emissions were continuing on 8 February, with fountaining to 1 m height. The area within 25 m of the hole has been covered with mud. Gas measurements taken on 8 February detected 15 ppm HCN and 12 ppm H₂S. Shallow volcanic earthquakes were recorded in January at rates of 3-20/day, but were decreasing prior to the 23 January activity. Seismicity has continued since then.

Geologic Background. The Dieng plateau in the highlands of central Java is renowned both for the variety of its volcanic scenery and as a sacred area housing Java's oldest Hindu temples, dating back to the 9th century CE. The Dieng Volcanic Complex consists of multiple stratovolcanoes and more than 20 small Pleistocene-to-Holocene craters and cones over a 6 x 14 km area. Prahu stratovolcano was truncated by a large Pleistocene caldera, which was subsequently filled by a series of cones, lava domes, and craters, many containing lakes. Lava flows cover much of the plateau, but observed activity has been restricted to minor phreatic eruptions. Gas emissions are a hazard at several craters and have caused fatalities. There are abundant thermal features and high heat flow across the area.

Information Contacts: W. Tjetjep, VSI.

The November expedition . . . was organized by Haroun Tazieff in connection with a film about his volcanological work, produced by Gaumont Television. Climbers who descended into the active crater were Luigi Cantamessa (Géo-découverte), Gilbert Pareau (Association of Alpine Guides of Chamonix) Marc Vigny (SVG), Pierre Villemin (cameraman), Alain Curvelier (sound engineer), and Andre Schussele (medical doctor).

Geologic Background. The Erta Ale basaltic shield volcano in Ethiopia has a 50-km-wide edifice that rises more than 600 m from below sea level in the Danakil depression. The volcano includes a 0.7 x 1.6 km summit crater hosting steep-sided pit craters. Another larger 1.8 x 3.1 km wide depression elongated parallel to the trend of the Erta Ale range is located SE of the summit and is bounded by curvilinear fault scarps on the SE side. Basaltic lava flows from these fissures have poured into the caldera and locally overflowed its rim. The summit caldera usually also holds at least one long-term lava lake that has been active since at least 1967, and possibly since 1906. Recent fissure eruptions have occurred on the N flank.

Information Contacts: P. Vetsch, SVG, Switzerland; L. Cantamessa, Géo-découverte, Switzerland.

The eruption ... is now Etna's longest flank eruption of the 20th century, surpassing the 372 days of E-flank activity in 1950-51. However, dominantly effusive eruptions from the summit area's Northeast Crater have persisted for many years (May 1957-February 1964; January 1966-April 1971; and September 1975-January 1977) and intermittent explosive activity from the central crater has continued since 1979.

The most active flows advanced NE and NNE, extending the upper part of the 1991-93 lava field toward the NE. On the morning of 4 February, lava flowing in the main tube was visible through two skylights, and emerged from small ephemeral vents on the N and S sides of the lava field. The approximately five northern ephemeral vents, between ~1,900 and 1,600 m elevation, were the most impressive, and fed the strongest flows, to the NNE. The small S vents, two of which were very close to the S wall of the Valle del Bove at 1,550 m asl, were the sources of very modest flows that moved E. Flows from both sets of vents advanced over the pre-existing lava field, and did not extend beyond elevations of 1,600 m (N vents) and 1,550 m (S vents). The volume of lava produced by 429 days of activity was estimated at 280 x 10⁶ m³.

Gas emission from the upper part of the eruptive fissure has declined notably, and as of mid-February only the former explosive vent at the fissure's lower end (2,215 m elevation) remained active. Degassing from the summit craters was similar to previous months. Modest ash emissions, caused by internal rockfalls, occurred rarely from the central crater's W vent. During the early morning of 3 February, phreatic explosions from Northeast Crater ejected old lava fragments to tens of meters W of the rim. A modest ashfall occurred on the E side of the crater, and ash was still visible on the snow during the following days. Northeast Crater was obstructed again after this activity, and the next day only vigorous fumarolic activity was noted on the crater floor. SO₂ flux, measured by COSPEC, declined from ~ 7,000 t/d in December to 5,000-6,000 t/d in January, about average at Etna.

Seismicity remained at low energy levels during the report period (12 January-15 February). All of the 125 seismic events (M 0.7-3.4) recorded during the period were centered in the summit-crater area. The seismicity included only one swarm (23 events, maximum M 3.4) on 3 February between 0527 and 0623. All were low-frequency events (1-5 Hz) and occurred as wave-trains that resembled spasmodic tremor. With that exception, volcanic tremor was absent.

Geologic Background. Mount Etna, towering above Catania on the island of Sicily, has one of the world's longest documented records of volcanism, dating back to 1500 BCE. Historical lava flows of basaltic composition cover much of the surface of this massive volcano, whose edifice is the highest and most voluminous in Italy. The Mongibello stratovolcano, truncated by several small calderas, was constructed during the late Pleistocene and Holocene over an older shield volcano. The most prominent morphological feature of Etna is the Valle del Bove, a 5 x 10 km caldera open to the east. Two styles of eruptive activity typically occur, sometimes simultaneously. Persistent explosive eruptions, sometimes with minor lava emissions, take place from one or more summit craters. Flank vents, typically with higher effusion rates, are less frequently active and originate from fissures that open progressively downward from near the summit (usually accompanied by Strombolian eruptions at the upper end). Cinder cones are commonly constructed over the vents of lower-flank lava flows. Lava flows extend to the foot of the volcano on all sides and have reached the sea over a broad area on the SE flank.

Information Contacts: R. Romano and T. Caltabiano, IIV; P. Carveni, M. Grasso, and C. Monaco, Univ di Catania; G. Luongo, OV.

The following, from Stanley Williams and Setsuya Nakada, supplements information on the 14 January eruption. We are pleased to report that Williams is recovering well from his injuries.

Galeras first became active in early 1988, not in 1989 as previously reported, when soldiers occupying a communications post on the rim observed increased gas emissions, rockfalls, and felt earthquakes. Magmatic gases were sampled in December 1988.

Nakada, 2.1 km NE of the crater, first felt and heard the 14 January explosion, which sounded similar to a dynamite explosion, at 1340. Thick clouds over the summit area limited visibility. The noise quickly changed to a clattering sound, with the sound of rolling stones within the crater continuing for ~20 minutes. About 10 minutes after the eruption there was a 15-minute shower of small (a few mm across) scattered lithics.

INGEOMINAS reports that seismicity was low, 2-8 long-period events/day, during the first two weeks of January. Seventeen "screw-type" events (1-3 Hz frequencies and long codas compared to their amplitudes) thought to be associated with movement of fluids in a cavity, were recorded 1-14 January. Similar seismicity was recorded prior to the 16 July 1992 eruption. The seismic signal associated with the 14 January eruption lasted ~15 minutes, with the eruption [occurring] during the first 6 minutes and 24 seconds. The remainder of the signal consisted of a tremor episode accompanied by long-period events. The event was identified as impulsive-compressive, a typical explosive seismic form characterized by initial low-frequency activity, with a mix of higher frequencies following the eruption. Data are from the "OBONUCO" station, 5.8 km SE of the crater, operated by the Andean Geophysical Institute. The total of 761 long-period events occurred during the 18 hours following the eruption, with 611 in the first 12 hours; the largest occurrence recorded since monitoring began in 1989. There were a maximum was 50 events/hour, some associated with gas release. Seismicity then returned to the low levels of previous months, with the exception of two relatively long, very low frequency tremor episodes (to 6.5 minutes). Similar tremor episodes were associated with the lava dome emplacement (July-December 1991). High-frequency seismicity was most significant during the first days of January, averaging 3 earthquakes/day, with magnitudes of 1.2-2.2. Most were located near the active crater.

SO₂ flux measured by COSPEC ranged from 8 to 194 t/d on 14-18 January and 81-562 t/d later in the month. Fumarolic activity was low on the 16th and 19th, with little to no audible noise outside the caldera. New fumarolic activity was observed at the S edge of the main crater. Analysis of ash from the eruption showed a juvenile component (associated with liquid magma), altered material (from the conduit and the surrounding area), and some contribution from the dome that was destroyed in 1992. The only noticeable morphological change, a cone in the main crater, was a result of the explosion.

Fumaroles near the site of the explosion, inside the crater, were visited on 26 November 1992 by José Arlés Zapata and Néstor García (both of whom were killed in the eruption), Héctor Cepeda, Marino Martini, and Franco Prati. The temperature of the gas sample was 642°C (table 6). The composition of gases implies production directly from magmatic fluids, with minor contributions from shallow aquifers.

Table 6. Analysis of gases collected at Galeras (26 November 1992) and Puracé (28 November 1992). Percentages shown are for dry gas. Courtesy of M. Martini.

The following interpretation of the eruption is from John Stix, who attended the workshop. "The most recent period of unrest at Galeras (1988-present) has been characterized by strong non-eruptive degassing. This is seen visually, with the COSPEC, and using glass inclusion studies that indicate degassing in the magma chamber and conduit. After explosive eruptions in May 1989, the SO₂ flux in 1989-90 was huge (up to 5,000-10,000 t/d). By mid-1991, SO₂ had declined and the lava dome was emplaced in October-November 1991, accompanied by deformation and long-period seismicity due to shallow degassing as the magma ascended. After November 1991, SO₂ declined dramatically, as did the long-period seismicity. What may have happened was similar to Usu in 1977-1980; a small amount of magma was emplaced at shallow levels and erupted as a lava dome. Then, after November 1991, this magma became isolated from its source, just sitting in place stewing, cooling, and crystallizing, without much movement. The dome may have acted as a plug, so that the degassing of the partly solidified magma by crystallization created overpressurized gas-rich pockets. Visually, most of the surface degassing was occurring from fumaroles on the outer flank of the inner crater, suggesting that the magma could degas more easily along the conduit margins. Not only did the magma become more degassed over time, but due to the sealing of the system, gas-rich pockets could form because there was still some magma that crystallized and continued to degas.

"Since the 16 July eruption, gas pressure was building beneath the surface of the inner crater. This gas was trapped in the pore spaces of relatively impermeable rock, so overpressure likely developed. After a certain point, the rock ruptured and the eruption of 14 January ensued. It is also possible that the eruption was initiated phreatically. There was intense long period seismicity after the eruption, lasting until the next afternoon and decaying to levels comparable to those before the eruption. It seems that the partially solidified magma, emplaced as a lava dome in the inner crater (October-November 1991), degassed intensely for a day due to the removal of the overlying material. After 24 hours, most of this gas had been released, so the seismicity and SO₂ flux returned to pre-eruption levels. By 16 January, when COSPEC flights began, the SO₂ flux was very low (<100 t/d). Thus, with both the seismicity and COSPEC data, we were able to say that new, gas rich magma had probably not moved to shallow levels. Thus, the volcano was less dangerous after the eruption than initially thought. This kind of hazard has unfortunately not been appreciated, and is very difficult to predict at Galeras with the current monitoring configuration because there are so few changes prior to such an eruption."

Geologic Background. Galeras, a stratovolcano with a large breached caldera located immediately west of the city of Pasto, is one of Colombia's most frequently active volcanoes. The dominantly andesitic complex has been active for more than 1 million years, and two major caldera collapse eruptions took place during the late Pleistocene. Long-term extensive hydrothermal alteration has contributed to large-scale edifice collapse on at least three occasions, producing debris avalanches that swept to the west and left a large open caldera inside which the modern cone has been constructed. Major explosive eruptions since the mid-Holocene have produced widespread tephra deposits and pyroclastic flows that swept all but the southern flanks. A central cone slightly lower than the caldera rim has been the site of numerous small-to-moderate eruptions since the time of the Spanish conquistadors.

Information Contacts: M. Calvache, INGEOMINAS, Pasto; H. Cepeda, INGEOMINAS, Popayán; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze; S. Nakada, Kyushu Univ; S. Williams, Arizona State Univ; J. Stix, Univ de Montreal.

The pulse of inflation (50 microradians/year) that began in August 1991 appears to have ended, with both leveling and dry-tilt measurements in the summit area showing constant deflation. Data from the geodesic net in the crater area, measured in April 1991 and March 1992, show a mean horizontal expansion of 13 ± 2.5 mm radial to the active crater. Four reoccupations of a sector of the geodesic net between January 1992 and January 1993 did not show significant changes in linear deformation. Areal dilatation, which had increased 48 ppm between April 1991 and September 1992, declined 10 ppm by January 1993, consistent with deflation of the summit dry-tilt net.

Gases were collected from a fumarole on the NE side of the crater lake by Marino Martini, Franco Prati, and Riccardo Balsotti on 21 November 1992. Chemical characteristics (table 4) and the apparent equilibrium temperature of 143°C fall within the range observed for most quiescent volcanic systems.

Table 4. Analysis of gases collected at Poás and Irazú, November 1992. Percentages shown are for dry gas. Poás: 19 November 1992; sample included 88.46 volume % water; temperature 118°C. Irazú: 21 November 1992; sample included 89.54 volume % water; temperature 93°C. Courtesy of M. Martini.

Geologic Background. The massive Irazú volcano in Costa Rica, immediately E of the capital city of San José, covers an area of 500 km2 and is vegetated to within a few hundred meters of its broad summit crater complex. At least 10 satellitic cones are located on its S flank. No lava effusion is known since the eruption of the Cervantes lava flows from S-flank vents about 14,000 years ago, and all known Holocene eruptions have been explosive. The focus of eruptions at the summit crater complex has migrated to the W towards the main crater, which contains a small lake. The first well-documented eruption occurred in 1723, and frequent explosive eruptions have occurred since. Ashfall from the last major eruption during 1963-65 caused significant disruption to San José and surrounding areas. Phreatic activity reported in 1994 may have been a landslide event from the fumarolic area on the NW summit (Fallas et al., 2018).

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obadía, T. Marino, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

This report provides additional information about the 21 January eruption described in 17:12. Activity increased at 2335, with ejection of incandescent lava fragments and gray ash clouds. The 21 January explosion was followed by rumbling sounds and ejection of lava fragments that avalanched 750 m down the Beha valley. The press reported that a hot mudflow was observed at 1714 flowing S along the Bahebang River to 4.5 km from the summit, forcing the evacuation of 452 people. No casualties were reported, but avalanches or nuées ardentes damaged two houses near the outlet of the Bahebang river on 21 January, and another five are threatened by rain-induced lahars. The press noted that a bridge linking the villages of Dame and Karanglung, ~ 4 km SSW, was destroyed by hot ashes, and ashfall was reported 3-6 km SE and SSE of the summit (in the villages of Bubali, Salili, Panili, and Ondang). Avalanches and rumbling noises were continuing as of 10 February.

Geologic Background. Karangetang (Api Siau) volcano lies at the northern end of the island of Siau, about 125 km NNE of the NE-most point of Sulawesi. The stratovolcano contains five summit craters along a N-S line. It is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, with more than 40 eruptions recorded since 1675 and many additional small eruptions that were not documented (Neumann van Padang, 1951). Twentieth-century eruptions have included frequent explosive activity sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters; collapse of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows.

Information Contacts: W. Tjetjep, VSI; ANS.

Following a 24 hour pause on 3 January, the East rift zone resumed activity. Flows were active on the Kamoamoa delta on 6 January, subsiding a few days later. For most of the month, lava was fed directly to the Kamoamoa coastline through the lava-tube system and enlarged the delta, with at least three flows breaking out of a skylight at 455 m elevation. Ocean entries were mildly explosive. On 17 January, one of these flows re-entered the tube system through a lower skylight within hours of breaking out. In addition, there was a minor breakout on the upper pali on 20 January, but activity was generally quiet on the E-51 flow field. The largest spatter cone in the episode-51 vent complex collapsed on 21 January, leaving an opening 15 m wide and 20 m deep. Pilots reported seeing lava in the base of the new crater. Pu`u `O`o crater remained active and deep below the crater rim in January.

Eruption tremors continued at 2-3x background level, with minor amplitude fluctuations in early January. Microearthquake counts were low beneath the summit and rift zones. There were two moderate earthquakes in January, one at 2214 on the 24th and at 0524 on the 26th. The 24 January earthquake of M 4.5 located near Namakani Paio campground was felt from Hilo to Volcano. No major damage was reported. The 26 January earthquake of M 5.0, located N of Pahala, was the largest in a series of earthquakes during a 48 hour swarm. Most of the 350 aftershocks were not felt and were too small to locate. The water-tube tiltmeter at Uwekahuna vault recorded ~15 µrad of deflation 5-9 January, followed by inflation of about the same magnitude. There was a slight southerly tilt 5-18 January, with no net change of the summit area through the end of the month.

Geologic Background. Kilauea overlaps the E flank of the massive Mauna Loa shield volcano in the island of Hawaii. Eruptions are prominent in Polynesian legends; written documentation since 1820 records frequent summit and flank lava flow eruptions interspersed with periods of long-term lava lake activity at Halemaumau crater in the summit caldera until 1924. The 3 x 5 km caldera was formed in several stages about 1,500 years ago and during the 18th century; eruptions have also originated from the lengthy East and Southwest rift zones, which extend to the ocean in both directions. About 90% of the surface of the basaltic shield volcano is formed of lava flows less than about 1,100 years old; 70% of the surface is younger than 600 years. The long-term eruption from the East rift zone between 1983 and 2018 produced lava flows covering more than 100 km2, destroyed hundreds of houses, and added new coastline.

Information Contacts: T. Mattox and P. Okubo, HVO.

The eruption . . . continued in 1993. The strongest explosive activity occurred on 12 November 1992. Bombs fell to several hundred meters N of the vent and smaller tephra reached the N coast. Lava flowed 1 km to the N coast and entered the sea, extending >100 m beyond the shore. Lava continued to advance in January, but feeding of the flow from the vent may have stopped by mid-February. Strombolian explosions ejected lava fragments, visibly incandescent at night, in early February and ash columns rose 100-400 m. The number of explosion earthquakes varied from 500-2,000/day (figure 4), at intervals of 5 seconds to 5 minutes. Explosions can sometimes be observed from the volcano observatory . . . . Tourists have been advised to remain at least 3 km from the island until further notice.

Figure 4. Number of daily explosion earthquakes, 10 November 1992 to 7 February 1993. Courtesy of VSI.

Geologic Background. The renowned Krakatau (frequently mis-named as Krakatoa) volcano lies in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. Collapse of an older edifice, perhaps in 416 or 535 CE, formed a 7-km-wide caldera. Remnants of that volcano are preserved in Verlaten and Lang Islands; subsequently the Rakata, Danan, and Perbuwatan cones were formed, coalescing to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan, and left only a remnant of Rakata. This eruption caused more than 36,000 fatalities, most as a result of tsunamis that swept the adjacent coastlines of Sumatra and Java. Pyroclastic surges traveled 40 km across the Sunda Strait and reached the Sumatra coast. After a quiescence of less than a half century, the post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former Danan and Perbuwatan cones. Anak Krakatau has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927.

Information Contacts: W. Tjetjep, VSI.

"Activity remained at a moderate level in January, very similar to the activity in December. Emissions from Crater 2 consisted of weak-to-moderate white vapour-and-ash clouds. Occasionally, forceful emissions of thick dark-grey ash-laden clouds formed a column several hundred metres high at the summit. Explosion and rumbling sounds usually accompanied these Vulcanian explosions. Fine ashfalls were reported on the SE side of the volcano on a few days. A steady, weak night glow was seen over the crater during the second half of the month, with incandescent Strombolian projections to 100 m on 23-24 January. Activity at Crater 3 was at a very low level throughout the month, consisting only of the gentle release of small volumes of white vapour, with some blue vapour 30-31 January. Seismicity remained low, with only a few explosion earthquakes recorded daily."

Geologic Background. Langila, one of the most active volcanoes of New Britain, consists of a group of four small overlapping composite basaltic-andesitic cones on the lower E flank of the extinct Talawe volcano in the Cape Gloucester area of NW New Britain. A rectangular, 2.5-km-long crater is breached widely to the SE; Langila was constructed NE of the breached crater of Talawe. An extensive lava field reaches the coast on the N and NE sides of Langila. Frequent mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded since the 19th century from three active craters at the summit. The youngest and smallest crater (no. 3 crater) was formed in 1960 and has a diameter of 150 m.

Information Contacts: R. Stewart, P. de Saint-Ours, and C. McKee, RVO.

"Low level activity continued at S Crater. Emissions consisted of weak vapour, occasionally with light ash content. Weak fluctuating glow was seen above the crater every night of January after the 5th. Main Crater released a thin to moderately thick plume of white vapour. Seismicity consisted of discontinuous low-amplitude tremor and low-frequency events of small amplitude throughout the month. Tiltmeter measurements showed no trends."

Geologic Background. The 10-km-wide island of Manam, lying 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea, is one of the country's most active volcanoes. Four large radial valleys extend from the unvegetated summit of the conical basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano to its lower flanks. These valleys channel lava flows and pyroclastic avalanches that have sometimes reached the coast. Five small satellitic centers are located near the island's shoreline on the northern, southern, and western sides. Two summit craters are present; both are active, although most observed eruptions have originated from the southern crater, concentrating eruptive products during much of the past century into the SE valley. Frequent eruptions, typically of mild-to-moderate scale, have been recorded since 1616. Occasional larger eruptions have produced pyroclastic flows and lava flows that reached flat-lying coastal areas and entered the sea, sometimes impacting populated areas.

Information Contacts: R. Stewart, P. de Saint-Ours, and C. McKee, RVO.

An explosion at 1311 on 2 February generated a pyroclastic flow that traveled 6 km SSE down the Bonga gully and spread out over most of the fan built by 1984 pyroclastic flows. A cauliflower-shaped cloud rose 4.5 km above the summit, and ash fell near Camalig, about 9 km SW. A seismograph 4 km N of the summit recorded the explosion earthquake, which lasted for 6 minutes and 40 seconds, and corresponded with a booming sound. The eruption lasted for about 30 minutes.

Prior to the 2 February eruption, PHIVOLCS conducted visual observations, and seismic monitoring from three permanent stations around the volcano: Mayon Rest House Observatory (MRHO), on the N slope 4 km from the summit; Sta. Misericordia Observatory (SMO), in Sto. Domingo on the E slope 7 km from the summit; and the Lignon Hill Observatory (LHO), in Legaspi City on the SE slope 12 km from the summit. Ground deformation measurements were done at MRHO using a water-tube tiltmeter, a precise leveling line on the N slopes, and two electronic distance meter lines on the N and E slopes. White steam emission varied from wispy to moderate through 1992 and into 1993, with no increase or discoloration prior to the explosion. Seismicity over the same period was usually low, with 0-10 events/day, again with no significant increase before the 2 February event. No inflation or crater glow was observed. PHIVOLCS has since installed six additional seismic stations, with three telemetered seismic stations planned. Teams were also deployed to make ground deformation measurements.

A part of the SE crater rim and/or a block of the wall of the Bonga gully slumped into the gully 1900-1930 on 2 February. There were a few small ash emissions on 3 February. A degassed plug of lava was also growing in the crater, causing incandescent rocks to tumble into Bonga gully. There were two small explosions on 6 February at 0400 and 1600. The one at 0400 produced a small pyroclastic flow. A NOTAM advising all pilots to avoid flying over the area was issued on 4 February. Eruptions larger than the initial explosion occurred on 12 February at 1127 and 1230. The first eruption produced an ash cloud that rose about 1.5 km, and a pyroclastic flow 4 km down the Bonga gully. The second sent an ash cloud to 3 km height and a pyroclastic flow 5 km down the Matanag gully, also on the SE flank of the volcano.

COSPEC measurements from a helicopter detected 1,415 metric tons/day (t/d) SO₂ on 3 February. Additional measurements 6, 7, and 8 February were 700, 800, and 900 t/d, respectively.

Press sources have reported at least 68 dead and over 100 injured, almost all resulting from the 2 February pyroclastic flow. No casualties were reported from the 12 February eruptions. An evacuation order has been issued for the area within 6 km of the summit, already off-limits for settlement. Most of the dead were farmers tending crops within the 6 km danger zone. A zone within 10 km on the SE side of the volcano has also been evacuated. The evacuated population was about 60,000 on 17 February.

Geologic Background. Symmetrical Mayon, which rises above the Albay Gulf NW of Legazpi City, is the most active volcano of the Philippines. The steep upper slopes are capped by a small summit crater. Recorded eruptions since 1616 CE range from Strombolian to basaltic Plinian, with cyclical activity beginning with basaltic eruptions, followed by longer term andesitic lava flows. Eruptions occur predominately from the central conduit and have also produced lava flows that travel far down the flanks. Pyroclastic flows and mudflows have commonly swept down many of the approximately 40 ravines that radiate from the summit and have often damaged populated lowland areas. A violent eruption in 1814 killed more than 1,200 people and devastated several towns.

Information Contacts: PHIVOLCS; AP.

Incandescent pyroclastic flows generated by the growing 1992 lava dome continued to advance down the Bebang river in late 1992 and early 1993. Some of the larger rockfalls overflowed into the Bedog and Boyong rivers on the S flank. Pyroclastic flows were visually observed between the end of December and 6 February 1993. On 3 February, the longest pyroclastic flow of this period traveled 4 km WNW down the Senowo and Sat rivers, and the highest plume, rising 1,500 m, occurred at 2200-2206. Rainfall recorded between 1515 and 2310 that same day at five volcano observatories around Merapi totalled 58-94 mm. There has been no increase in seismicity of volcanic gas concentrations (table 6). Blue sublimates are no longer seen around the G.13 solfatara field.

Geologic Background. Merapi, one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta. It is the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain extending NNW to Ungaran volcano. Growth of Old Merapi during the Pleistocene ended with major edifice collapse perhaps about 2,000 years ago, leaving a large arcuate scarp cutting the eroded older Batulawang volcano. Subsequent growth of the steep-sided Young Merapi edifice, its upper part unvegetated due to frequent activity, began SW of the earlier collapse scarp. Pyroclastic flows and lahars accompanying growth and collapse of the steep-sided active summit lava dome have devastated cultivated lands on the western-to-southern flanks and caused many fatalities.

Information Contacts: S. Bronto, MVO.

Dry-tilt data have shown no significant changes since 1987.

Geologic Background. The Platanar volcanic center is the NW-most volcano in the Cordillera Central of Costa Rica. The massive complex covers about 900 km2 and is dominated by two largely Pleistocene stratovolcanoes, Platanar and Porvenir. These volcanoes were constructed within the Pleistocene Chocosuela caldera, which may have formed during a major slope failure. The Cerro Platanar volcano (known locally as Volcán Congo) on the N side of the complex has prehistorical lava flows on its W flanks and is the youngest volcanic center. The highest peak is Porvenir, whose summit crater lies 3 km S of Platanar. A thin layer of phreatic ash suggested that an eruption from Platanar occurred within the past few thousand years (Stine and Banks, 1991). The Aguas Zarcas group of nine basaltic cinder cones, located on the N flank of the Platanar-Porvenir complex to as low as 160 m altitude is, in part, Holocene in age.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obadía, T. Marino, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

Gas plumes rose to 500 m above the crater lake in January. Fumaroles remained active in the N and NW part of the crater. Noise from some fumaroles was audible from the overlook. Phreatic eruptions ejected material to 1-2 m above two sulfur terraces that had formed in the SE part of the lake. The lake's temperature was 65°C, its pH was 1.3, and its surface was 50 cm lower in January than in December.

The nearest dry-tilt station (1 km from the crater) has shown a general tendency toward slow deflation (6.4 µrad/year) since 1982. Measurements began on the distance-measuring network that covers the active crater in 1989. Minor expansion was detected in 1989 and in December 1990, but no significant changes have been evident since then.

On 19 November 1992, Marino Martini, Franco Prati, and Erick Fernández collected gas samples from a fumarole (table 4). An apparent equilibrium temperature of 368°C was calculated, similar to the 390°C obtained in 1989, suggesting a substantially constant rate of magmatic degassing with some fluctuations caused by rainwater.

Table 4. Analysis of gases collected at Poás and Irazú, November 1992. Percentages shown are for dry gas. Poás: 19 November 1992; sample included 88.46 volume % water; temperature 118°C. Irazú: 21 November 1992; sample included 89.54 volume % water; temperature 93°C. Courtesy of M. Martini.

Geologic Background. The broad vegetated edifice of Poás, one of the most active volcanoes of Costa Rica, contains three craters along a N-S line. The frequently visited multi-hued summit crater lakes of the basaltic-to-dacitic volcano are easily accessible by vehicle from the nearby capital city of San José. A N-S-trending fissure cutting the complex stratovolcano extends to the lower N flank, where it has produced the Congo stratovolcano and several lake-filled maars. The southernmost of the two summit crater lakes, Botos, last erupted about 7,500 years ago. The more prominent geothermally heated northern lake, Laguna Caliente, is one of the world's most acidic natural lakes, with a pH of near zero. It has been the site of frequent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions since an eruption was reported in 1828. Eruptions often include geyser-like ejections of crater-lake water.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obadía, T. Marino, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

Fumaroles near the summit were visited by Héctor Cepeda, other geologists from INGEOMINAS, Marino Martini, and Franco Prati. The temperature of the gas sample (table 1) was 170°C, and geologists inferred a significant magmatic component.

Table 1. Analysis of gases collected at Galeras (26 November 1992) and Puracé (28 November 1992). Percentages shown are for dry gas. Courtesy of M. Martini.

Geologic Background. Puracé in Colombia consists of an andesitic stratovolcano with a 500-m-wide summit crater constructed over a dacitic shield volcano. It lies at the NW end of a volcanic massif opposite Pan de Azúcar stratovolcano, 6 km SE. A NW-SE-trending group of seven cones and craters, Los Coconucos, lies between the two larger edifices. Frequent explosive eruptions in the 19th and 20th centuries have modified the morphology of the summit crater. The largest eruptions occurred in 1849, 1869, and 1885.

Information Contacts: H. Cepeda, INGEOMINAS, Popayán; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

"Seismic activity decreased in January, when 352 caldera earthquakes were recorded . . .. The 18 located earthquakes were distributed mainly in the N part of the caldera seismic zone. The routine monthly levelling in the caldera showed no changes compared to December."

Geologic Background. The low-lying Rabaul caldera on the tip of the Gazelle Peninsula at the NE end of New Britain forms a broad sheltered harbor utilized by what was the island's largest city prior to a major eruption in 1994. The outer flanks of the asymmetrical shield volcano are formed by thick pyroclastic-flow deposits. The 8 x 14 km caldera is widely breached on the east, where its floor is flooded by Blanche Bay and was formed about 1,400 years ago. An earlier caldera-forming eruption about 7,100 years ago is thought to have originated from Tavui caldera, offshore to the north. Three small stratovolcanoes lie outside the N and NE caldera rims. Post-caldera eruptions built basaltic-to-dacitic pyroclastic cones on the caldera floor near the NE and W caldera walls. Several of these, including Vulcan cone, which was formed during a large eruption in 1878, have produced major explosive activity during historical time. A powerful explosive eruption in 1994 occurred simultaneously from Vulcan and Tavurvur volcanoes and forced the temporary abandonment of Rabaul city.

Information Contacts: R. Stewart, P. de Saint-Ours, and C. McKee, RVO.

Fumarolic activity continued in the E wall of the active crater. A seismic station (RIN3) 5 km SW of the crater registered 30 high-frequency shocks on 26 January. The same day at 1646, a M 3.0 earthquake occurred 4 km NNE of the main crater at 9 km depth. No significant tilt changes were observed during the most recent measurements in November 1992.

Geologic Background. Rincón de la Vieja, the largest volcano in NW Costa Rica, is a remote volcanic complex in the Guanacaste Range. The volcano consists of an elongated, arcuate NW-SE-trending ridge constructed within the 15-km-wide early Pleistocene Guachipelín caldera, whose rim is exposed on the south side. Sometimes known as the "Colossus of Guanacaste," it has an estimated volume of 130 km3 and contains at least nine major eruptive centers. Activity has migrated to the SE, where the youngest-looking craters are located. The twin cone of Santa María volcano, the highest peak of the complex, is located at the eastern end of a smaller, 5-km-wide caldera and has a 500-m-wide crater. A Plinian eruption producing the 0.25 km3 Río Blanca tephra about 3,500 years ago was the last major magmatic eruption. All subsequent eruptions, including numerous historical eruptions possibly dating back to the 16th century, have been from the prominent active crater containing a 500-m-wide acid lake located ENE of Von Seebach crater.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obadía, T. Marino, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

Eruptive activity at Socorro Island (figure 1) was first observed at 1745 on 29 January 2.4 km NW of Punta Tosca (figure 2) by underwater photographers aboard the "Mystique." When the boat approached a steam column, they observed hot, dark-colored rocks ~1-3 m across breaking the surface in an area of ~50 m². Depending on the specific block, there was production of hissing noises, steam, jets of white vapor several meters high, violent fracturing, or fragmentation that sent clasts to 50 m height. No explosive activity or volcanic plume was observed. Depending on vesicularity, blocks either sank or floated; floating rocks covered an area of ~6,000 m² by 31 January. Depth soundings gave depths of 138-149 m in an area where a large number of gas bubbles were being generated, presumably by degassing of rising lava clasts. Activity had decreased by 3 February, when only eight blocks were seen at the surface, but the Mystique reported that activity fluctuated during the day and between days. Another depth sounding recorded a depth of 519 m.

Figure 1. Location map and general geologic map of Socorro Island showing three major eruptive units (from Bryan, 1966 and 1976).

Figure 2. Sketch map and interpretive cross-section of the SW part of Socorro Island with location of submarine activity W of Punta Tosca. Courtesy of Ignacio Galindo.

Juvenile material collected by Mystique divers is described by geologists as black to greenish, semi-translucent, highly vesiculated glass with vesicles up to 5-10 cm in diameter and abundant large (10-15 mm) gray tabular plagioclase phenocrysts.

Activity observed by geologists on 4 February (1245-1700) had a radius of about 1 km, centered at 18.81°N, 111.08°W, about 3.14 km from Punta Tosca and 4.63 km from Cape Henslow on Socorro Island. Water depth, determined by echo-sounding, was 80 m about 200 m SE from the most active area, and rapidly increased to more than 200 m travelling E towards the island. Although the data is only an approximation due to the difficulty of approaching the vent area, a sharp rise in the ocean-floor topography below the most active area is indicated. Very hot scoriaceous lava blocks, ranging in size from several centimeters to 2-3 m, were observed quickly rising to the surface and producing activity similar to that described earlier. Blocks then either floated away or sank, with some being propelled along the surface by steam and effervescence. The vent area was difficult to precisely locate because of strong wind and waves causing the blocks to drift. Most of the time, three distinct and separate areas were observed, somewhat aligned, where the majority of lava fragments were rising. Seawater temperature was normal, but a light sulfurous odor was detected. A helicopter inspection from 1815-1835 observed an accumulation of blocks below the surface from which large (up to 5 m) blocks detached and rose to the surface. Some type of spine from which blocks were being released was confirmed by an overflight about 15 m above the surface.

A helicopter reconnaissance flight the next day (1005-1059) observed activity similar to previous days. About 100 rocks could be seen at any one time during 20 minutes of overflight at 5-10 m above the surface, and there was a strong sulfurous odor. New fragments continuously rose to the surface with a trail of bubbles in two distinct areas about 100 m apart. Wind and waves again made it difficult to define the vent area. Elongated bands of fine gray solid matter floating on the surface, observed from higher altitudes, are interpreted as finely fragmented suspended scoria. There was no evidence of juvenile material accumulating close to the surface or above it. Another helicopter flight that afternoon did not observe any evidence of hot floating scoriaceous rocks. Reports from Naval personnel based on visual observations from the sea and air indicate continued submarine activity through 17 February, but no accumulation of material above the surface.

The summit fumarole area of Everman volcano on Socorro Island exhibited no unusual activity during a 5 February visit. The summit lava dome complex, composed of abundant obsidian and other less vitric lavas, did not contain any fumaroles. However, below the summit to the NNE and NW, there are fumaroles at the base of a relatively young lava dome (figure 3), which appears to be the most recent feature in the summit area. The younger dome, which has obsidian margins, appears to have filled an older crater in a depression about 100 m below the summit to the N. The most active area is on the SE side of the N dome along an apparent zone of weakness with cracks to 1 m deep and 1 m wide. This zone includes areas of vapor, boiling water or mud, clay alteration, sulfates, and sulfur encrustations. Temperature measurements were taken at the major fumaroles (table 1). The largest and most continuously active fumarole produced a hissing sound. Water samples from a hotspring near fumarole F were obtained for analysis. An older dome SE of the summit also has some very small fumaroles. Overall, vapor emissions in the summit area do not seem uncommon for an active volcano.

Figure 3. Topographic map of the summit of Everman volcano, Socorro Island, with location of major monitored fumaroles, and major structural features of the N lava dome. Light stipling indicates areas with intense fumarolic activity and hydrothermal alteration.

Table 1. Temperatures (°C) measured in fumaroles in the summit area of Everman volcano, Socorro Island. All temperatures are thermocouple readings, except for location D, which was measured with a calibrated mercury thermometer. Location F contained several fumaroles and associated hydrothermal phenomena.

Precursors were first recorded on 19 January, when an unusual clustering of randomly distributed impulsive hydroacoustic signals (T-phases) was observed on recordings from SOFAR channel hydrophones located near the island of Oahu, Hawaii. The T-phases were accompanied by elevated levels of background noise. Activity intensified at about 1000 GMT, and lasted approximately 1 hour. Based on the strongest phases recorded in Hawaii and at the LDG in Tahiti, the source was located near Socorro Island. Seismicity was felt by Mexican naval authorities on the island beginning on 16 January. A portable MQ-800 seismometer was installed on 4 February at the naval base on the island.

Socorro Island is located ~716 km W of Manzanillo, Colima, and 480 km S of the tip of Baja California. Tectonically, it is located within a segment of the southernmost region of the East Pacific Rise, S of the Riverra Fracture Zone. Eruptions have been reported in 1848, 1896, 1905, and 22 May 1951, but there are no clear details about the eruptions or their effects. The island is a compositionally diverse volcanic complex that rises about 4,000 m from the surrounding ocean floor. Based on recent ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating, the surface is estimated to be 540 Ka old. The youngest reported age, from a lava flow on the S side of the island, is about 15 Ka, but probably does not represent the youngest unit. There are about 60 men, stationed at the Mexican National Navy base, living on the island.

References. Bryan, W. B., 1966, History and mechanism of eruption of soda-rhyolite and alkali basalt, Socorro Island, Mexico: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 29, p. 453-479.

Bryan, W. B., 1976, A basalt-pantellerite association from Isla Socorro, Islas Revillagigedo, Mexico, in Volcanoes and Tectonosphere, H. Aoki, and S. Iizuka, eds., p. 75-91.

Geologic Background. Socorro, the SE-most of the Revillagigedo Islands south of Baja California, is the summit of a massive, predominately submarine basaltic shield volcano capped by a largely buried, 4.5 x 3.8-km-wide summit caldera. A large tephra cone and lava dome complex, Cerro Evermann, forms the summit, and along with other cones and vents, fills much of the Pleistocene caldera. Rhyolitic lava domes have been constructed along flank rifts oriented to the N, W, and SE, and silicic lava flows from summit and flank vents have reached the coast and created an extremely irregular shoreline. Late-stage basaltic eruptions produced cones and flows near the coast. Only minor explosive activity, some of which is of uncertain validity, has occurred from flank vents in historical time dating back to the 19th century. In 1951 a brief phreatic eruption ejected blocks, and the gas column reached 1200 m altitude. A submarine eruption occurred during 1993-94 from a vent 3 km W of the island during which large scoriaceous blocks up to 5 m in size floated to the surface without associated explosive activity.

Information Contacts: Gustavo Calderón, Instituto de Oceanografía de Manzanillo, Las Brisas, Manzanillo, Colima, México; Ignacio Galindo, Carlos Navarro, and AbelCortés, CUICT, Univ de Colima, Apartado Postal 380, CP 2800, Colima, México; Jean-ChristopheKomorowski, ClausSiebe, and HugoDelgado, Instituto de Geofísica, UNAM, Coyoacán, 04510, México DF, México; BillChadwick, ChrisFox, and BobEmbley, NOAA, 2115 SE Osu Drive, Newport, OR 97365 USA; Charles S. McCreery and Daniel A. Walker, Univ of Hawaii at Manoa, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA; J. Talandier, LDG Tahiti; Wendy Bohrson, Dept of Earth & Space Sciences, UCLA, 595 Circle Drive East, Geology Bldg., Room 3806, Los Angeles, CA 90024 USA; Bob Talbot and Charlie Peck, Bob Talbot Productions, P.O. Box 3126, Rancho Palos Verdes, CA 90274 USA.

Seismicity has continued at Spurr from mid-January through mid-February, but there have been no eruptive episodes since 16-17 September 1992. The number of locatable earthquakes beneath Crater Peak, to depths of 30 km, has remained at a level of 0-3/day during this period. Deeper seismicity (>15 km depth) and locatable events within 10 km of the volcano gradually declined in late 1992 and early 1993, consistent with the possibility that magma is no longer being supplied to the shallow system. Seismicity at 5-15 km and <5 km depths remained low, but above background levels, in mid-February. There were 0-4 locatable seismic events during the week of 5-12 February, all of which were shallow.

Geologic Background. Mount Spurr is the closest volcano to Anchorage, Alaska (130 km W) and just NE of Chakachamna Lake. The summit is a large lava dome at the center of a roughly 5-km-wide amphitheater open to the south formed by a late-Pleistocene or early Holocene debris avalanche and associated pyroclastic flows that destroyed an older edifice. The debris avalanche traveled more than 25 km SE, and the resulting deposit contains blocks as large as 100 m in diameter. Several ice-carved post-collapse cones or lava domes are present. The youngest vent, Crater Peak, formed at the southern end of the amphitheater and has been the source of about 40 identified Holocene tephra layers. Eruptions from Crater Peak in 1953 and 1992 deposited ash in Anchorage.

Information Contacts: AVO.

A short series of violent explosions occurred from the summit craters on 10 February at 1610 GMT, ejecting a large tephra column. Lithic blocks and lava fragments fell to 1 km from the summit, and heavy ashfall occurred at the village of Ginostra, ~2 km SW of the summit. Only weak degassing from the summit craters was visible during the next two days.

A sequence of three explosion earthquakes that occurred within <2 minutes of one another was recorded by the Ginostra station of the Aeolian Island Seismic Network, operated by the IIV. The last earthquake was followed by high-amplitude tremor that lasted for 8 minutes, then gradually declined. No other anomalous seismic activity was recorded during the succeeding hours, although spectral amplitude of tremor was remarkably low. No seismicity associated with the explosive activity was detected by any other stations in the IIV network. Tilt data from a shallow borehole station on the lower N flank (at Punta Labronzo) did not show any deformation suggesting significant magma storage in the volcanic edifice.

Geologists noted that the activity appears to be comparable to similar episodes in 1988 and 1989, thought to be caused by shallow gas accumulation building pressure in a feeder pipe.

Geologic Background. Spectacular incandescent nighttime explosions at Stromboli have long attracted visitors to the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean" in the NE Aeolian Islands. This volcano has lent its name to the frequent mild explosive activity that has characterized its eruptions throughout much of historical time. The small island is the emergent summit of a volcano that grew in two main eruptive cycles, the last of which formed the western portion of the island. The Neostromboli eruptive period took place between about 13,000 and 5,000 years ago. The active summit vents are located at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a prominent scarp that formed about 5,000 years ago due to a series of slope failures which extends to below sea level. The modern volcano has been constructed within this scarp, which funnels pyroclastic ejecta and lava flows to the NW. Essentially continuous mild Strombolian explosions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded for more than a millennium.

Information Contacts: S. Falsaperla and L. Velardita, IIV.

Tilt measurements made quarterly beginning in 1982 and twice a year since 1987 have revealed no changes above detection limits. Turrialba's last eruption, in 1864-66, produced ash and pyroclastic surges.

Geologic Background. Turrialba, the easternmost of Costa Rica's Holocene volcanoes, is a large vegetated basaltic-to-dacitic stratovolcano located across a broad saddle NE of Irazú volcano overlooking the city of Cartago. The massive edifice covers an area of 500 km2. Three well-defined craters occur at the upper SW end of a broad 800 x 2200 m summit depression that is breached to the NE. Most activity originated from the summit vent complex, but two pyroclastic cones are located on the SW flank. Five major explosive eruptions have occurred during the past 3500 years. A series of explosive eruptions during the 19th century were sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows. Fumarolic activity continues at the central and SW summit craters.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, J. Barquero, R. Van der Laat, F. de Obaldía, T. Marino, and R. Sáenz, OVSICORI; M. Martini, Univ di Firenze, Italy.

"Seismic activity changed subtly at the end of December. Few low-frequency earthquakes were recorded, but there had been a gradual increase in low-amplitude, long-duration 'tremor events.' By the beginning of January, the increase had been such that the events had coalesced into sub-continuous very low-amplitude tremor. There was a brief return of low-frequency events 1-4 January, including some very unusual signatures. There were also indications of periodically stronger tremor at this time, although the signals could have been due to high winds. From the 5th onwards the level of tremor remained steady and there were only a few low-frequency events. Visible activity was normal, with small amounts of thin vapour being gently released.

"The first sign of any abnormal visible activity was on 12 January, when a report was received of a dark eruption column that was forcefully emitted to ~1,000 m above the summit before declining to 400 m in height and becoming lighter coloured. Many clouds form around Uluwan during the daytime, so there were no other reports to confirm this activity. There was also a report of weak glow seen that night. Aerial and ground inspections were made on 14 and 15 January, when activity consisted of sub-continuous, forceful emissions of low-moderate volumes of white vapour. There were less forceful emissions of blue vapour, and no increase in the level of tremor associated with the increase in visual activity. This type of activity persisted until 19 January.

"There were some reports of weak night glow and sub-continuous noises on the night of 18 January. However, emissions were unchanged at 0900 on the 19th. A change had occurred when the next observation was possible, at 1300, when there were forceful emissions of dark ash clouds to 500 m above the summit. Continuous night glow and sub-continuous deep roaring sounds were reported from Nuau village and Ulamona Mission, both ~12 km from the summit, on the night of the 19th. The level of tremor increased by a factor of about two between 0300 and 0400 on 20 January. Visual activity from dawn (0530) onwards consisted of moderate volumes of grey/brown ash being forcefully emitted up to 1.5 km above the crater. The emissions varied in strength, and during an aerial inspection it was possible to see into the crater, which is elongated in an E-W direction, with its largest dimension ~100 m. No base could be seen to the crater, and the emissions were being released from very deep on the E side. Blue vapour was seen at times. Continuous rumbling and roaring noises were heard on the flanks of the volcano.

"There was a decrease in the ash content and the volume of the emissions on 21 and 22 January, with moderate thick white vapour and occasional dark-grey ash clouds being gently released. Very light ashfall was reported from Sule and Nuau. From 23 January until the end of the month emissions were generally moderate white vapour, some blue vapour, and occasional light-grey ash clouds. At times of low winds, the vapour column rose to over 2 km above the summit. There was almost continuous weak glow from the crater at night. No sounds were heard during this time. Seismic tremor remained at moderate levels. There were some variations in the tremor level 26-27 January, producing slight 'banding' on Helicorder records.

"An aerial inspection on the 29th gave the first clear view of the base of the crater. The inner walls were precipitous and the crater was perhaps 150-200 m deep. Steady incandescence from a body of lava was seen on the E side of the crater floor; no explosive activity was seen. Pale-grey, fresh-looking tephra was noted on the crater walls above the lava surface, and a septum had developed, bisecting the base of the crater."

Geologic Background. The symmetrical basaltic-to-andesitic Ulawun stratovolcano is the highest volcano of the Bismarck arc, and one of Papua New Guinea's most frequently active. The volcano, also known as the Father, rises above the N coast of the island of New Britain across a low saddle NE of Bamus volcano, the South Son. The upper 1,000 m is unvegetated. A prominent E-W escarpment on the south may be the result of large-scale slumping. Satellitic cones occupy the NW and E flanks. A steep-walled valley cuts the NW side, and a flank lava-flow complex lies to the south of this valley. Historical eruptions date back to the beginning of the 18th century. Twentieth-century eruptions were mildly explosive until 1967, but after 1970 several larger eruptions produced lava flows and basaltic pyroclastic flows, greatly modifying the summit crater.

Information Contacts: R. Stewart, P. de Saint-Ours, and C. McKee, RVO.

The lava dome complex's shape remained relatively unchanged throughout December and January. On 1 February, fresh, massive lava blocks began to appear from the west-central part of the dome complex, which had continued to swell during the last week of January. The swelling event was accompanied by frequent volcanic earthquakes. The lava blocks grew to form a new lava dome (dome 10) by 3 February (figure 48). Peel structure, consisting of thick multiple lava lobes extruded from the center, characterized the new dome. Dome 10 grew from 150 x 100 m wide and 25 m high on 4 February, to 200 x 150 m wide and 50 m high on 10 February. It's summit reached 1,400 m elevation, the highest of the 10 domes. The eruption rate was estimated at 10⁵ m³/day 1-10 February, twice the rate of December and January. Dome 10 lava emerged just above Jigokuato Crater, where dome 1 appeared and explosions occurred on 8 and 11 June 1991. Small avalanches from dome 10 traveled N and SW on 9 February, covering old lava domes (1 and 3). Previous avalanches, May 1991-January 1993, went NE, E, and SE. Strong ash-laden eruption clouds rose intermittently. On 10 February, small-scale pyroclastic flows were seen moving to the SW and W from dome 10.

Figure 48. Sketch map of the lava-dome complex on 5 February 1993. Note that north is to the right. Courtesy of Setsuya Nakada.

The frequency of seismically detected pyroclastic flows had declined since mid-November, with the exception of bursts on 20 December and 15 January, and remained low through early February. The flows are thought to be generated by partial collapse of the dome complex. The 20 December flow traveled 3.7 km from the source, the largest of 1992. The flow front was ~ 300 m beyond the point where 43 people were killed by a pyroclastic surge 3 June 1991. The source material for the 20 December pyroclastic flow is thought to be large lava blocks extruded about one month earlier. Field reports showed that the deposits tapered and thinned to the front. The block-and-ash-flow deposits were not accompanied by pyroclastic surge deposits. Lava blocks found in the pyroclastic flow were massive and dense. Geologists considered two alternative models for the source of the ash: 1) it originated at the source of the pyroclastic flow, or 2) it formed from the disintegration of collapsed lava blocks. The 15 January flow traveled SE, eroding talus and pyroclastic flow deposits. Only 35 pyroclastic flows were recorded in January, down from 86 in December and 255 in November. The flows moved mainly towards the SE into the Akamatsu Valley. Ash clouds from the flows rose ~ 0.5 km.

Small earthquakes beneath and within the dome complex continued to occur at high rates. A total of 3,147 occurred in January, down slightly from 3,558 in December. Seismicity around the volcano was low. Frequency of earthquakes and pyroclastic flows were unchanged from January through early February. The number of evacuees from Shimbara city and Fukae town was unchanged at 2,008.

Geologic Background. The massive Unzendake volcanic complex comprises much of the Shimabara Peninsula east of the city of Nagasaki. An E-W graben, 30-40 km long, extends across the peninsula. Three large stratovolcanoes with complex structures, Kinugasa on the north, Fugen-dake at the east-center, and Kusenbu on the south, form topographic highs on the broad peninsula. Fugendake and Mayuyama volcanoes in the east-central portion of the andesitic-to-dacitic volcanic complex have been active during the Holocene. The Mayuyama lava dome complex, located along the eastern coast west of Shimabara City, formed about 4000 years ago and was the source of a devastating 1792 CE debris avalanche and tsunami. Historical eruptive activity has been restricted to the summit and flanks of Fugendake. The latest activity during 1990-95 formed a lava dome at the summit, accompanied by pyroclastic flows that caused fatalities and damaged populated areas near Shimabara City.

Information Contacts: JMA; S. Nakada, Kyushu Univ.

Minor ash emission was reported by helicopter pilot R. Fleming from a vent on the N floor of Wade Crater on 4 January. Eruption of blocks from a new vent under the S wall of the crater was observed on the same flight; no ejecta fell outside of the 1978/92 Crater Complex. The two vents were not significantly active the previous day, but gas emission was increasing. On 14 January, activity was observed from three sources in Wade Crater.

Fieldwork on 15 January revealed continuous ash coverage, with depths of 20-25 mm in some areas. No topographic changes within the 1978/92 Crater Complex were observed. An inclined vent on the S side of Wade Crater produced two types of activity. A steam column with minor ash content was emitted at about 1000, rising 200-500 m above the crater. Surtseyan style pulses with varying densities appeared at 1250 that rose 100-150 m. Individual blocks frequently broke away and could be heard rolling back into the vent. A steep unstable talus slope formed around the active vent. This vent appeared to occupy an area which showed some subsidence on 8 December.

There was no sign of new tephra or ejected blocks outside the 1978/92 Crater Complex during fieldwork on 21 January. A "lake" of viscous, black sludge in Wade Crater was erupting continuously from 3-4 points. The eruptions appeared to be generated by steam exploding through the sludge. Large lumps of sludge were thrown to 30 m, followed by larger explosions which sent debris up to 100 m high. No detonations were heard and there was no incandescence or fine ash emission observed at any stage of the eruptions. Fumaroles were active on the N and E sides of Wade Crater. TV1, Princess, and Royce craters were emitting fumes and low-pressure steam.

A levelling survey completed on 21 January again revealed rapid subsidence (-16.1 mm/month compared to -19.7 mm/month in the seven months prior to December) since 8 December on the W side of Donald Duck Crater. Geologists suggest a source depth of 100-150 m, with the rate of subsidence increasing since 1991. Medium-frequency volcanic tremors characterized seismicity through 15 January.

Geologic Background. The uninhabited Whakaari/White Island is the 2 x 2.4 km emergent summit of a 16 x 18 km submarine volcano in the Bay of Plenty about 50 km offshore of North Island. The island consists of two overlapping andesitic-to-dacitic stratovolcanoes. The SE side of the crater is open at sea level, with the recent activity centered about 1 km from the shore close to the rear crater wall. Volckner Rocks, sea stacks that are remnants of a lava dome, lie 5 km NW. Descriptions of volcanism since 1826 have included intermittent moderate phreatic, phreatomagmatic, and Strombolian eruptions; activity there also forms a prominent part of Maori legends. The formation of many new vents during the 19th and 20th centuries caused rapid changes in crater floor topography. Collapse of the crater wall in 1914 produced a debris avalanche that buried buildings and workers at a sulfur-mining project. Explosive activity in December 2019 took place while tourists were present, resulting in many fatalities. The official government name Whakaari/White Island is a combination of the full Maori name of Te Puia o Whakaari ("The Dramatic Volcano") and White Island (referencing the constant steam plume) given by Captain James Cook in 1769.

Information Contacts: B. Scott, C. Wood, and P. Otway, IGNS, Taupo.

Landslides and steam emissions on Wurlali volcano were triggered by MM IV-V earthquakes near the [island]. About 4,000 people fled the area, and one of the evacuees died of shock. Staff from VSI observed small landslides and cracks in house walls. There was no volcanic activity observed following the landslides, but the usual white plumes continued to rise 30-50 m above the crater. Tectonic earthquakes were continuing at rates of 14-32/day on 8 February.

Geologic Background. The andesitic Wurlali stratovolcano, also known as Damar, was constructed at the northern end of a 5-km-wide caldera on the eastern side of Damar Island in the Banda Sea. Fumarolic activity occurs in the twin summit craters and on the SE flanks, producing exploitable sulfur deposits. An explosive eruption was observed in 1892 CE.

Information Contacts: W. Tjetjep, VSI.

Observations from the W part of the crater rim on 28 October 1992 revealed low-level activity in Zone A, (S section of the crater) and substantial gas emission with faint explosions in Zone B (central section). Significant activity was observed in Zone C (N section) with large explosions and lava ejections reaching the rim. Explosions were heavily ash-laden and an ash cloud was clearly visible from the NW side of the volcano. Steam emission decreased through October because of low rainfall. A total of 21 earthquakes were recorded in 3 hours during 28 October fieldwork. The surface area of Lake Siwi had retreated by about one-third since the beginning of October and the river which feeds it had dried up.

On 8 November no significant explosive activity was observed. Small explosions with white gas emissions were observed in Zone A. No activity was observed in Zone B. There were heavy ash-laden gas emissions in Zone C. A continuous loud noise was heard from one of the vents, possibly in Zone C, which appeared to act as an escape valve, perhaps explaining the lack of significant explosive activity. Explosive activity resumed on 10 and 11 November, but was much less frequent and intense than in April, May, and October.

Geologic Background. Yasur has exhibited essentially continuous Strombolian and Vulcanian activity at least since Captain Cook observed ash eruptions in 1774. This style of activity may have continued for the past 800 years. Located at the SE tip of Tanna Island in Vanuatu, this pyroclastic cone has a nearly circular, 400-m-wide summit crater. The active cone is largely contained within the small Yenkahe caldera, and is the youngest of a group of Holocene volcanic centers constructed over the down-dropped NE flank of the Pleistocene Tukosmeru volcano. The Yenkahe horst is located within the Siwi ring fracture, a 4-km-wide open feature associated with eruption of the andesitic Siwi pyroclastic sequence. Active tectonism along the Yenkahe horst accompanying eruptions has raised Port Resolution harbor more than 20 m during the past century.

Information Contacts: M. Lardy and D. Charley, LAVE.