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Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network

All reports of volcanic activity published by the Smithsonian since 1968 are available through a monthly table of contents or by searching for a specific volcano. Until 1975, reports were issued for individual volcanoes as information became available; these have been organized by month for convenience. Later publications were done in a monthly newsletter format. Links go to the profile page for each volcano with the Bulletin tab open.

Information is preliminary at time of publication and subject to change.

Recently Published Bulletin Reports

Ibu (Indonesia) Daily ash explosions continue, along with thermal anomalies in the crater, October 2022-May 2023

Dukono (Indonesia) Continuing ash emissions, SO2 plumes, and thermal signals during October 2022-May 2023

Sabancaya (Peru) Explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity persist during November 2022-April 2023

Sheveluch (Russia) Significant explosions destroyed part of the lava-dome complex during April 2023

Bezymianny (Russia) Explosions, ash plumes, lava flows, and avalanches during November 2022-April 2023

Chikurachki (Russia) New explosive eruption during late January-early February 2023

Marapi (Indonesia) New explosive eruption with ash emissions during January-March 2023

Kikai (Japan) Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023

Lewotolok (Indonesia) Strombolian eruption continues through April 2023 with intermittent ash plumes

Barren Island (India) Thermal activity during December 2022-March 2023

Villarrica (Chile) Nighttime crater incandescence, ash emissions, and seismicity during October 2022-March 2023

Fuego (Guatemala) Daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, avalanches, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023



Ibu (Indonesia) — June 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Ibu

Indonesia

1.488°N, 127.63°E; summit elev. 1325 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Daily ash explosions continue, along with thermal anomalies in the crater, October 2022-May 2023

Persistent eruptive activity since April 2008 at Ibu, a stratovolcano on Indonesian’s Halmahera Island, has consisted of daily explosive ash emissions and plumes, along with observations of thermal anomalies (BGVN 47:04). The current eruption continued during October 2022-May 2023, described below, based on advisories issued by the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), daily reports by MAGMA Indonesia (a PVMBG platform), and the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and various satellite data. The Alert Level during the reporting period remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), except raised briefly to 3 on 27 May, and the public was warned to stay at least 2 km away from the active crater and 3.5 km away on the N side of the volcano.

According to MAGMA Indonesia, during October 2022-May 2023, daily gray-and-white ash plumes of variable densities rose 200-1,000 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions. On 30 October and 11 November, plumes rose a maximum of 2 km and 1.5 km above the summit, respectively (figures 42 and 43). According to the Darwin VAAC, discrete ash emissions on 13 November rose to 2.1 km altitude, or 800 m above the summit, and drifted W, and multiple ash emissions on 15 November rose 1.4 km above the summit and drifted NE. Occasional larger ash explosions through May 2023 prompted PVMBG to issue Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) alerts (table 6); the Aviation Color Code remained at Orange throughout this period.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 42. Larger explosion from Ibu’s summit crater on 30 October 2022 that generated a plume that rose 2 km above the summit. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 43. Larger explosion from Ibu’s summit crater on 11 November 2022 that generated a plume that rose 1.5 km above the summit. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Table 6. Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) ash plume alerts for Ibu issued by PVMBG during October 2022-May 2023. Maximum height above the summit was estimated by a ground observer. VONAs in January-May 2023 all described the ash plumes as dense.

Date Time (local) Max height above summit Direction
17 Oct 2022 0858 800 m SW
18 Oct 2022 1425 800 m S
19 Oct 2022 2017 600 m SW
21 Oct 2022 0916 800 m NW
16 Jan 2023 1959 600 m NE
22 Jan 2023 0942 1,000 m E
29 Jan 2023 2138 1,000 m E
10 May 2023 0940 800 m NW
10 May 2023 2035 600 m E
21 May 2023 2021 600 m W
21 May 2023 2140 1,000 m W
29 May 2023 1342 800 m N
31 May 2023 1011 1,000 m SW

Sentinel-2 L1C satellite images throughout the reporting period show two, sometimes three persistent thermal anomalies in the summit crater, with the most prominent hotspot from the top of a cone within the crater. Clear views were more common during March-April 2023, when a vent and lava flows on the NE flank of the intra-crater cone could be distinguished (figure 44). White-to-grayish emissions were also observed during brief periods when weather clouds allowed clear views.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 44. Sentinel-2 L2A satellite images of Ibu on 10 April 2023. The central cone within the summit crater (1.3 km diameter) and lava flows (gray) can be seen in the true color image (left, bands 4, 3, 2). Thermal anomalies from the small crater of the intra-crater cone, a NE-flank vent, and the end of the lava flow are apparent in the infrared image (right, bands 12, 11, 8A). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

The MIROVA space-based volcano hotspot detection system recorded almost daily thermal anomalies throughout the reporting period, though cloud cover often interfered with detections. Data from imaging spectroradiometers aboard NASA’s Aqua and Terra satellites and processed using the MODVOLC algorithm (MODIS-MODVOLC) recorded hotspots on one day during October 2022 and December 2022, two days in April 2023, three days in November 2022 and May 2023, and four days in March 2023.

Geologic Background. The truncated summit of Gunung Ibu stratovolcano along the NW coast of Halmahera Island has large nested summit craters. The inner crater, 1 km wide and 400 m deep, has contained several small crater lakes. The 1.2-km-wide outer crater is breached on the N, creating a steep-walled valley. A large cone grew ENE of the summit, and a smaller one to the WSW has fed a lava flow down the W flank. A group of maars is located below the N and W flanks. The first observed and recorded eruption was a small explosion from the summit crater in 1911. Eruptive activity began again in December 1998, producing a lava dome that eventually covered much of the floor of the inner summit crater along with ongoing explosive ash emissions.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia (Multiplatform Application for Geohazard Mitigation and Assessment in Indonesia), Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).


Dukono (Indonesia) — June 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Dukono

Indonesia

1.6992°N, 127.8783°E; summit elev. 1273 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Continuing ash emissions, SO2 plumes, and thermal signals during October 2022-May 2023

Dukono, a remote volcano on Indonesia’s Halmahera Island, has been erupting continuously since 1933, with frequent ash explosions and sulfur dioxide plumes (BGVN 46:11, 47:10). This activity continued during October 2022 through May 2023, based on reports from the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG; also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and satellite data. During this period, the Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4) and the public was warned to remain outside of the 2-km exclusion zone. The highest reported plume of the period reached 9.4 km above the summit on 14 November 2022.

According to MAGMA Indonesia (a platform developed by PVMBG), white, gray, or dark plumes of variable densities were observed almost every day during the reporting period, except when fog obscured the volcano (figure 33). Plumes generally rose 25-450 m above the summit, but rose as high as 700-800 m on several days, somewhat lower than the maximum heights reached earlier in 2022 when plumes reached as high as 1 km. However, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 14 November 2022, a discrete ash plume rose 9.4 km above the summit (10.7 km altitude), accompanied by a strong hotspot and a sulfur dioxide signal observed in satellite imagery; a continuous ash plume that day and through the 15th rose to 2.1-2.4 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 33. Webcam photo of a gas-and-steam plume rising from Dukono on the morning of 28 January 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Sentinel-2 images were obscured by weather clouds almost every viewing day during the reporting period. However, the few reasonably clear images showed a hotspot and white or gray emissions and plumes. Strong SO2 plumes from Dukono were present on many days during October 2022-May 2023, as detected using the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite (figure 34).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 34. A strong SO2 signal from Dukono on 23 April 2023 was the most extensive plume detected during the reporting period. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Geologic Background. Reports from this remote volcano in northernmost Halmahera are rare, but Dukono has been one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes. More-or-less continuous explosive eruptions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have occurred since 1933. During a major eruption in 1550 CE, a lava flow filled in the strait between Halmahera and the N-flank Gunung Mamuya cone. This complex volcano presents a broad, low profile with multiple summit peaks and overlapping craters. Malupang Wariang, 1 km SW of the summit crater complex, contains a 700 x 570 m crater that has also been active during historical time.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia (Multiplatform Application for Geohazard Mitigation and Assessment in Indonesia), Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).


Sabancaya (Peru) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Sabancaya

Peru

15.787°S, 71.857°W; summit elev. 5960 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity persist during November 2022-April 2023

Sabancaya is located in Peru, NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca. Eruptions date back to 1750 and have been characterized by explosions, phreatic activity, ash plumes, and ashfall. The current eruption period began in November 2016 and has more recently consisted of daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report updates activity during November 2022 through April 2023 using information from Instituto Geophysico del Peru (IGP) that use weekly activity reports and various satellite data.

Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were reported by the MIROVA project during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 119). There were few short gaps in thermal activity during mid-December 2022, late December-to-early January 2023, late January to mid-February, and late February. According to data recorded by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, there were a total of eight thermal hotspots: three in November 2022, three in February 2023, one in March, and one in April. On clear weather days, some of this thermal anomaly was visible in infrared satellite imagery showing the active lava dome in the summit crater (figure 120). Almost daily moderate-to-strong sulfur dioxide plumes were recorded during the reporting period by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite (figure 121). Many of these plumes exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in multiple directions.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 119. Intermittent low-to-moderate thermal anomalies were detected during November 2022 through April 2023 at Sabancaya, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). There were brief gaps in thermal activity during mid-December 2022, late December-to-early January 2023, late January to mid-February, and late February. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 120. Infrared (bands 12, 11, 8A) satellite images showed a constant thermal anomaly in the summit crater of Sabancaya on 14 January 2023 (top left), 28 February 2023 (top right), 5 March 2023 (bottom left), and 19 April 2023 (bottom right), represented by the active lava dome. Sometimes gas-and-steam and ash emissions also accompanied this activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 121. Moderate-to-strong sulfur dioxide plumes were detected almost every day, rising from Sabancaya by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite throughout the reporting period; the DU (Dobson Unit) density values were often greater than 2. Plumes from 23 November 2022 (top left), 26 December 2022 (top middle), 10 January 2023 (top right), 15 February 2023 (bottom left), 13 March 2023 (bottom middle), and 21 April 2023 (bottom right) that drifted SW, SW, W, SE, W, and SW, respectively. Courtesy of NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

IGP reported that moderate activity during November and December 2022 continued; during November, an average number of explosions were reported each week: 30, 33, 36, and 35, and during December, it was 32, 40, 47, 52, and 67. Gas-and-ash plumes in November rose 3-3.5 km above the summit and drifted E, NE, SE, S, N, W, and SW. During December the gas-and-ash plumes rose 2-4 km above the summit and drifted in different directions. There were 1,259 volcanic earthquakes recorded during November and 1,693 during December. Seismicity also included volcano-tectonic-type events that indicate rock fracturing events. Slight inflation was observed in the N part of the volcano near Hualca Hualca (4 km N). Thermal activity was frequently reported in the crater at the active lava dome (figure 120).

Explosive activity continued during January and February 2023. The average number of explosions were reported each week during January (51, 50, 60, and 59) and February (43, 54, 51, and 50). Gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.6-2.9 km above the summit and drifted NW, SW, and W during January and rose 1.4-2.8 above the summit and drifted W, SW, E, SE, N, S, NW, and NE during February. IGP also detected 1,881 volcanic earthquakes during January and 1,661 during February. VT-type earthquakes were also reported. Minor inflation persisted near Hualca Hualca. Satellite imagery showed continuous thermal activity in the crater at the lava dome (figure 120).

During March, the average number of explosions each week was 46, 48, 31, 35, and 22 and during April, it was 29, 41, 31, and 27. Accompanying gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.7-2.6 km above the summit crater and drifted W, SW, NW, S, and SE during March. According to a Buenos Aires Volcano Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) notice, on 22 March at 1800 through 23 March an ash plume rose to 7 km altitude and drifted NW. By 0430 an ash plume rose to 7.6 km altitude and drifted W. On 24 and 26 March continuous ash emissions rose to 7.3 km altitude and drifted SW and on 28 March ash emissions rose to 7.6 km altitude. During April, gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.6-2.5 km above the summit and drifted W, SW, S, NW, NE, and E. Frequent volcanic earthquakes were recorded, with 1,828 in March and 1,077 in April, in addition to VT-type events. Thermal activity continued to be reported in the summit crater at the lava dome (figure 120).

Geologic Background. Sabancaya, located in the saddle NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca volcanoes, is the youngest of these volcanic centers and the only one to have erupted in historical time. The oldest of the three, Nevado Hualca Hualca, is of probable late-Pliocene to early Pleistocene age. The name Sabancaya (meaning "tongue of fire" in the Quechua language) first appeared in records in 1595 CE, suggesting activity prior to that date. Holocene activity has consisted of Plinian eruptions followed by emission of voluminous andesitic and dacitic lava flows, which form an extensive apron around the volcano on all sides but the south. Records of historical eruptions date back to 1750.

Information Contacts: Instituto Geofisico del Peru (IGP), Centro Vulcanológico Nacional (CENVUL), Calle Badajoz N° 169 Urb. Mayorazgo IV Etapa, Ate, Lima 15012, Perú (URL: https://www.igp.gob.pe/servicios/centro-vulcanologico-nacional/inicio); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard MD 20771, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Sheveluch (Russia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Sheveluch

Russia

56.653°N, 161.36°E; summit elev. 3283 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Significant explosions destroyed part of the lava-dome complex during April 2023

Sheveluch (also spelled Shiveluch) in Kamchatka, has had at least 60 large eruptions during the last 10,000 years. The summit is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide caldera that is breached to the S, and many lava domes occur on the outer flanks. The lava dome complex was constructed within the large open caldera. Frequent collapses of the dome complex have produced debris avalanches; the resulting deposits cover much of the caldera floor. A major south-flank collapse during a 1964 Plinian explosion produced a scarp in which a “Young Sheveluch” dome began to form in 1980. Repeated episodes of dome formation and destruction since then have produced major and minor ash plumes, pyroclastic flows, block-and-ash flows, and “whaleback domes” of spine-like extrusions in 1993 and 2020 (BGVN 45:11). The current eruption period began in August 1999 and has more recently consisted of lava dome growth, explosions, ash plumes, and avalanches (BGVN 48:01). This report covers a significant explosive eruption during early-to-mid-April 2023 that generated a 20 km altitude ash plume, produced a strong sulfur dioxide plume, and destroyed part of the lava-dome complex; activity described during January through April 2023 use information primarily from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and various satellite data.

Satellite data. Activity during the majority of this reporting period was characterized by continued lava dome growth, strong fumarole activity, explosions, and hot avalanches. According to the MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, 140 hotspots were detected through the reporting period, with 33 recorded in January 2023, 29 in February, 44 in March, and 34 in April. Frequent strong thermal activity was recorded during January 2023 through April, according to the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph and resulted from the continuously growing lava dome (figure 94). A slightly stronger pulse in thermal activity was detected in early-to-mid-April, which represented the significant eruption that destroyed part of the lava-dome complex. Thermal anomalies were also visible in infrared satellite imagery at the summit crater (figure 95).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 94. Strong and frequent thermal activity was detected at Sheveluch during January through April 2023, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). These thermal anomalies represented the continuously growing lava dome and frequent hot avalanches that affected the flanks. During early-to-mid-April a slightly stronger pulse represented the notable explosive eruption. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 95. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite imagery showed persistent thermal anomalies at the lava dome of Sheveluch on 14 January 2023 (top left), 26 February 2023 (top right), and 15 March 2023 (bottom left). The true color image on 12 April 2023 (bottom right) showed a strong ash plume that drifted SW; this activity was a result of the strong explosive eruption during 11-12 April 2023. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

During January 2023 KVERT reported continued growth of the lava dome, accompanied by strong fumarolic activity, incandescence from the lava dome, explosions, ash plumes, and avalanches. Satellite data showed a daily thermal anomaly over the volcano. Video data showed ash plumes associated with collapses at the dome that generated avalanches that in turn produced ash plumes rising to 3.5 km altitude and drifting 40 km W on 4 January and rising to 7-7.5 km altitude and drifting 15 km SW on 5 January. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash that was associated with avalanches rose to 5-6 km altitude and extended 52-92 km W on 7 January. Explosions that same day produced ash plumes that rose to 7-7.5 km altitude and drifted 10 km W. According to a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) issued at 1344 on 19 January, explosions produced an ash cloud that was 15 x 25 km in size and rose to 9.6-10 km altitude, drifting 21-25 km W; as a result, the Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). Another VONA issued at 1635 reported that no more ash plumes were observed, and the ACC was lowered to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). On 22 January an ash plume from collapses and avalanches rose to 5 km altitude and drifted 25 km NE and SW; ash plumes associated with collapses extended 70 km NE on 27 and 31 January.

Lava dome growth, fumarolic activity, dome incandescence, and occasional explosions and avalanches continued during February and March. A daily thermal anomaly was visible in satellite data. Explosions on 1 February generated ash plumes that rose to 6.3-6.5 km altitude and extended 15 km NE. Video data showed an ash cloud from avalanches rising to 5.5 km altitude and drifting 5 km SE on 2 February. Satellite data showed gas-and-steam plumes containing some ash rose to 5-5.5 km altitude and drifted 68-110 km ENE and NE on 6 February, to 4.5-5 km altitude and drifted 35 km WNW on 22 February, and to 3.7-4 km altitude and drifted 47 km NE on 28 February. Scientists from the Kamchatka Volcanological Station (KVS) went on a field excursion on 25 February to document the growing lava dome, and although it was cloudy most of the day, nighttime incandescence was visible. Satellite data showed an ash plume extending up to 118 km E during 4-5 March. Video data from 1150 showed an ash cloud from avalanches rose to 3.7-5.5 km altitude and drifted 5-10 km ENE and E on 5 March. On 11 March an ash plume drifted 62 km E. On 27 March ash plumes rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted 100 km E. Avalanches and constant incandescence at the lava dome was focused on the E and NE slopes on 28 March. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash rose to 3.5 km altitude and moved 40 km E on 29 March. Ash plumes on 30 March rose to 3.5-3.7 km altitude and drifted 70 km NE.

Similar activity continued during April, with lava dome growth, strong fumarolic activity, incandescence in the dome, occasional explosions, and avalanches. A thermal anomaly persisted throughout the month. During 1-4 April weak ash plumes rose to 2.5-3 km altitude and extended 13-65 km SE and E.

Activity during 11 April 2023. The Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS) reported a significant increase in seismicity around 0054 on 11 April, as reported by strong explosions detected on 11 April beginning at 0110 that sent ash plumes up to 7-10 km altitude and extended 100-435 km W, WNW, NNW, WSW, and SW. According to a Tokyo VAAC report the ash plume rose to 15.8 km altitude. By 0158 the plume extended over a 75 x 100 km area. According to an IVS FEB RAS report, the eruptive column was not vertical: the initial plume at 0120 on 11 April deviated to the NNE, at 0000 on 12 April, it drifted NW, and by 1900 it drifted SW. KVS reported that significant pulses of activity occurred at around 0200, 0320, and then a stronger phase around 0600. Levin Dmitry took a video from near Békés (3 km away) at around 0600 showing a rising plume; he also reported that a pyroclastic flow traveled across the road behind him as he left the area. According to IVS FEB RAS, the pyroclastic flow traveled several kilometers SSE, stopping a few hundred meters from a bridge on the road between Klyuchi and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

Ashfall was first observed in Klyuchi (45 km SW) at 0630, and a large, black ash plume blocked light by 0700. At 0729 KVERT issued a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) raising the Aviation Color Code to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). It also stated that a large ash plume had risen to 10 km altitude and drifted 100 km W. Near-constant lightning strikes were reported in the plume and sounds like thunderclaps were heard until about 1000. According to IVS FEB RAS the cloud was 200 km long and 76 km wide by 0830, and was spreading W at altitudes of 6-12 km. In the Klyuchi Village, the layer of both ash and snow reached 8.5 cm (figure 96); ashfall was also reported in Kozyrevsk (112 km SW) at 0930, Mayskoye, Anavgay, Atlasovo, Lazo, and Esso. Residents in Klyuchi reported continued darkness and ashfall at 1100. In some areas, ashfall was 6 cm deep and some residents reported dirty water coming from their plumbing. According to IVS FEB RAS, an ash cloud at 1150 rose to 5-20 km altitude and was 400 km long and 250 km wide, extending W. A VONA issued at 1155 reported that ash had risen to 10 km and drifted 340 km NNW and 240 km WSW. According to Simon Carn (Michigan Technological University), about 0.2 Tg of sulfur dioxide in the plume was measured in a satellite image from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite acquired at 1343 that covered an area of about 189,000 km2 (figure 97). Satellite data at 1748 showed an ash plume that rose to 8 km altitude and drifted 430 km WSW and S, according to a VONA.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 96. Photo of ash deposited in Klyuchi village on 11 April 2023 by the eruption of Sheveluch. About 8.5 cm of ash was measured. Courtesy of Kam 24 News Agency.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 97. A strong sulfur dioxide plume from the 11 April 2023 eruption at Sheveluch was visible in satellite data from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite. Courtesy of Simon Carn, MTU.

Activity during 12-15 April 2023. On 12 April at 0730 satellite images showed ash plumes rose to 7-8 km altitude and extended 600 km SW, 1,050 km ESE, and 1,300-3,000 km E. By 1710 that day, the explosions weakened. According to news sources, the ash-and-gas plumes drifted E toward the Aleutian Islands and reached the Gulf of Alaska by 13 April, causing flight disruptions. More than 100 flights involving Alaska airspace were cancelled due to the plume. Satellite data showed ash plumes rising to 4-5.5 km altitude and drifted 400-415 km SE and ESE on 13 April. KVS volcanologists observed the pyroclastic flow deposits and noted that steam rose from downed, smoldering trees. They also noted that the deposits were thin with very few large fragments, which differed from previous flows. The ash clouds traveled across the Pacific Ocean. Flight cancellations were also reported in NW Canada (British Columbia) during 13-14 April. During 14-15 April ash plumes rose to 6 km altitude and drifted 700 km NW.

Alaskan flight schedules were mostly back to normal by 15 April, with only minor delays and far less cancellations; a few cancellations continued to be reported in Canada. Clear weather on 15 April showed that most of the previous lava-dome complex was gone and a new crater roughly 1 km in diameter was observed (figure 98); gas-and-steam emissions were rising from this crater. Evidence suggested that there had been a directed blast to the SE, and pyroclastic flows traveled more than 20 km. An ash plume rose to 4.5-5.2 km altitude and drifted 93-870 km NW on 15 April.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 98. A comparison of the crater at Sheveluch showing the previous lava dome (top) taken on 29 November 2022 and a large crater in place of the dome (bottom) due to strong explosions during 10-13 April 2023, accompanied by gas-and-ash plumes. The bottom photo was taken on 15 April 2023. Photos has been color corrected. Both photos are courtesy of Yu. Demyanchuk, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Activity during 16-30 April 2023. Resuspended ash was lifted by the wind from the slopes and rose to 4 km altitude and drifted 224 km NW on 17 April. KVERT reported a plume of resuspended ash from the activity during 10-13 April on 19 April that rose to 3.5-4 km altitude and drifted 146-204 km WNW. During 21-22 April a plume stretched over the Scandinavian Peninsula. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash rose to 3-3.5 km altitude and drifted 60 km SE on 30 April. A possible new lava dome was visible on the W slope of the volcano on 29-30 April (figure 99); satellite data showed two thermal anomalies, a bright one over the existing lava dome and a weaker one over the possible new one.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 99. Photo showing new lava dome growth at Sheveluch after a previous explosion destroyed much of the complex, accompanied by a white gas-and-steam plume. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of Yu. Demyanchuk, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

References. Girina, O., Loupian, E., Horvath, A., Melnikov, D., Manevich, A., Nuzhdaev, A., Bril, A., Ozerov, A., Kramareva, L., Sorokin, A., 2023, Analysis of the development of the paroxysmal eruption of Sheveluch volcano on April 10–13, 2023, based on data from various satellite systems, ??????????? ???????? ??? ?? ???????, 20(2).

Geologic Background. The high, isolated massif of Sheveluch volcano (also spelled Shiveluch) rises above the lowlands NNE of the Kliuchevskaya volcano group. The 1,300 km3 andesitic volcano is one of Kamchatka's largest and most active volcanic structures, with at least 60 large eruptions during the Holocene. The summit of roughly 65,000-year-old Stary Shiveluch is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide late-Pleistocene caldera breached to the south. Many lava domes occur on its outer flanks. The Molodoy Shiveluch lava dome complex was constructed during the Holocene within the large open caldera; Holocene lava dome extrusion also took place on the flanks of Stary Shiveluch. Widespread tephra layers from these eruptions have provided valuable time markers for dating volcanic events in Kamchatka. Frequent collapses of dome complexes, most recently in 1964, have produced debris avalanches whose deposits cover much of the floor of the breached caldera.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS), 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/eng/); Kamchatka Volcanological Station, Kamchatka Branch of Geophysical Survey, (KB GS RAS), Klyuchi, Kamchatka Krai, Russia (URL: http://volkstat.ru/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); Kam 24 News Agency, 683032, Kamchatka Territory, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Vysotnaya St., 2A (URL: https://kam24.ru/news/main/20230411/96657.html#.Cj5Jrky6.dpuf); Simon Carn, Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931, USA (URL: http://www.volcarno.com/, Twitter: @simoncarn).


Bezymianny (Russia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Bezymianny

Russia

55.972°N, 160.595°E; summit elev. 2882 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Explosions, ash plumes, lava flows, and avalanches during November 2022-April 2023

Bezymianny is located on the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia as part of the Klyuchevskoy volcano group. Historic eruptions began in 1955 and have been characterized by dome growth, explosions, pyroclastic flows, ash plumes, and ashfall. During the 1955-56 eruption a large open crater was formed by collapse of the summit and an associated lateral blast. Subsequent episodic but ongoing lava-dome growth, accompanied by intermittent explosive activity and pyroclastic flows, has largely filled the 1956 crater. The current eruption period began in December 2016 and more recent activity has consisted of strong explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers activity during November 2022 through April 2023, based on weekly and daily reports from the Kamchatka Volcano Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

Activity during November and March 2023 was relatively low and mostly consisted of gas-and-steam emissions, occasional small collapses that generated avalanches along the lava dome slopes, and a persistent thermal anomaly over the volcano that was observed in satellite data on clear weather days. According to the Tokyo VAAC and KVERT, an explosion produced an ash plume that rose to 6 km altitude and drifted 25 km NE at 1825 on 29 March.

Gas-and-steam emissions, collapses generating avalanches, and thermal activity continued during April. According to two Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) issued on 2 and 6 April (local time) ash plumes rose to 3 km and 3.5-3.8 km altitude and drifted 35 km E and 140 km E, respectively. Satellite data from KVERT showed weak ash plumes extending up to 550 km E on 2 and 5-6 April.

A VONA issued at 0843 on 7 April described an ash plume that rose to 4.5-5 km altitude and drifted 250 km ESE. Later that day at 1326 satellite data showed an ash plume that rose to 5.5-6 km altitude and drifted 150 km ESE. A satellite image from 1600 showed an ash plume extending as far as 230 km ESE; KVERT noted that ash emissions were intensifying, likely due to avalanches from the growing lava dome. The Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). At 1520 satellite data showed an ash plume rising to 5-5.5 km altitude and drifting 230 km ESE. That same day, Kamchatka Volcanological Station (KVS) volcanologists traveled to Ambon to collect ash; they reported that a notable eruption began at 1730, and within 20 minutes a large ash plume rose to 10 km altitude and drifted NW. KVERT reported that the strong explosive phase began at 1738. Video and satellite data taken at 1738 showed an ash plume that rose to 10-12 km altitude and drifted up to 2,800 km SE and E. Explosions were clearly audible 20 km away for 90 minutes, according to KVS. Significant amounts of ash fell at the Apakhonchich station, which turned the snow gray; ash continued to fall until the morning of 8 April. In a VONA issued at 0906 on 8 April, KVERT stated that the explosive eruption had ended; ash plumes had drifted 2,000 km E. The ACC was lowered to Orange (the third highest level on a four-color scale). The KVS team saw a lava flow on the active dome once the conditions were clear that same day (figure 53). On 20 April lava dome extrusion was reported; lava flows were noted on the flanks of the dome, and according to KVERT satellite data, a thermal anomaly was observed in the area. The ACC was lowered to Yellow (the second lowest on a four-color scale).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 53. Photo showing an active lava flow descending the SE flank of Bezymianny from the lava dome on 8 April 2023. Courtesy of Yu. Demyanchuk, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Satellite data showed an increase in thermal activity beginning in early April 2023. A total of 31 thermal hotspots were detected by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm on 4, 5, 7, and 12 April 2023. The elevated thermal activity resulted from an increase in explosive activity and the start of an active lava flow. The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) volcano hotspot detection system based on the analysis of MODIS data also showed a pulse in thermal activity during the same time (figure 54). Infrared satellite imagery captured a continuous thermal anomaly at the summit crater, often accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions (figure 55). On 4 April 2023 an active lava flow was observed descending the SE flank.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 54. Intermittent and low-power thermal anomalies were detected at Bezymianny during December 2022 through mid-March 2023, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). In early April 2023, an increase in explosive activity and eruption of a lava flow resulted in a marked increase in thermal activity. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 55. Infrared satellite images of Bezymianny showed a persistent thermal anomaly over the lava dome on 18 November 2022 (top left), 28 December 2022 (top right), 15 March 2023 (bottom left), and 4 April 2023 (bottom right), often accompanied by white gas-and-steam plumes. On 4 April a lava flow was active and descending the SE flank. Images using infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The modern Bezymianny, much smaller than its massive neighbors Kamen and Kliuchevskoi on the Kamchatka Peninsula, was formed about 4,700 years ago over a late-Pleistocene lava-dome complex and an edifice built about 11,000-7,000 years ago. Three periods of intensified activity have occurred during the past 3,000 years. The latest period, which was preceded by a 1,000-year quiescence, began with the dramatic 1955-56 eruption. This eruption, similar to that of St. Helens in 1980, produced a large open crater that was formed by collapse of the summit and an associated lateral blast. Subsequent episodic but ongoing lava-dome growth, accompanied by intermittent explosive activity and pyroclastic flows, has largely filled the 1956 crater.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Kamchatka Volcanological Station, Kamchatka Branch of Geophysical Survey, (KB GS RAS), Klyuchi, Kamchatka Krai, Russia (URL: http://volkstat.ru/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Chikurachki (Russia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Chikurachki

Russia

50.324°N, 155.461°E; summit elev. 1781 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


New explosive eruption during late January-early February 2023

Chikurachki, located on Paramushir Island in the northern Kuriles, has had Plinian eruptions during the Holocene. Lava flows have reached the sea and formed capes on the NW coast; several young lava flows are also present on the E flank beneath a scoria deposit. Reported eruptions date back to 1690, with the most recent eruption period occurring during January through October 2022, characterized by occasional explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers a new eruptive period during January through February 2023 that consisted of ash explosions and ash plumes, based on information from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

According to reports from KVERT, an explosive eruption began around 0630 on 29 January. Explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 3-3.5 km altitude and drifted 6-75 km SE and E, based on satellite data. As a result, the Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). At 1406 and 1720 ash plumes were identified in satellite images that rose to 4.3 km altitude and extended 70 km E. By 2320 the ash plume had dissipated. A thermal anomaly was visible at the volcano on 31 January, according to a satellite image, and an ash plume was observed drifting 66 km NE.

Occasional explosions and ash plumes continued during early February. At 0850 on 1 February an ash plume rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted 35 km NE. Satellite data showed an ash plume that rose to 3.2-3.5 km altitude and drifted 50 km NE at 1222 later that day (figure 22). A thermal anomaly was detected over the volcano during 5-6 February and ash plumes drifted as far as 125 km SE, E, and NE. Explosive events were reported at 0330 on 6 February that produced ash plumes rising to 4-4.5 km altitude and drifting 72-90 km N, NE, and ENE. KVERT noted that the last gas-and steam plume that contained some ash was observed on 8 February and drifted 55 km NE before the explosive eruption ended. The ACC was lowered to Yellow and then Green (the lowest level on a four-color scale) on 18 February.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 22. Satellite image showing a true color view of a strong ash plume rising above Chikurachki on 1 February 2023. The plume drifted NE and ash deposits (dark brown-to-gray) are visible on the NE flank due to explosive activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Chikurachki, the highest volcano on Paramushir Island in the northern Kuriles, is a relatively small cone constructed on a high Pleistocene edifice. Oxidized basaltic-to-andesitic scoria deposits covering the upper part of the young cone give it a distinctive red color. Frequent basaltic Plinian eruptions have occurred during the Holocene. Lava flows have reached the sea and formed capes on the NW coast; several young lava flows are also present on the E flank beneath a scoria deposit. The Tatarinov group of six volcanic centers is located immediately to the south, and the Lomonosov cinder cone group, the source of an early Holocene lava flow that reached the saddle between it and Fuss Peak to the west, lies at the southern end of the N-S-trending Chikurachki-Tatarinov complex. In contrast to the frequently active Chikurachki, the Tatarinov centers are extensively modified by erosion and have a more complex structure. Tephrochronology gives evidence of an eruption around 1690 CE from Tatarinov, although its southern cone contains a sulfur-encrusted crater with fumaroles that were active along the margin of a crater lake until 1959.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far East Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Marapi (Indonesia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Marapi

Indonesia

0.38°S, 100.474°E; summit elev. 2885 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


New explosive eruption with ash emissions during January-March 2023

Marapi in Sumatra, Indonesia, is a massive stratovolcano that rises 2 km above the Bukittinggi Plain in the Padang Highlands. A broad summit contains multiple partially overlapping summit craters constructed within the small 1.4-km-wide Bancah caldera and trending ENE-WSW, with volcanism migrating to the west. Since the end of the 18th century, more than 50 eruptions, typically characterized by small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been recorded. The previous eruption consisted of two explosions during April-May 2018, which caused ashfall to the SE (BGVN 43:06). This report covers a new eruption during January-March 2023, which included explosive events and ash emissions, as reported by Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM) and MAGMA Indonesia.

According to a press release issued by PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia on 26 December, primary volcanic activity at Marapi consisted of white gas-and-steam puffs that rose 500-100 m above the summit during April-December 2022. On 25 December 2022 there was an increase in the number of deep volcanic earthquakes and summit inflation. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 80-158 m above the summit on 5 January. An explosive eruption began at 0611 on 7 January 2023, which generated white gas-and-steam emissions and gray ash emissions mixed with ejecta that rose 300 m above the summit and drifted SE (figure 10). According to ground observations, white-to-gray ash clouds during 0944-1034 rose 200-250 m above the summit and drifted SE and around 1451 emissions rose 200 m above the summit. Seismic signals indicated that eruptive events also occurred at 1135, 1144, 1230, 1715, and 1821, but no ash emissions were visually observed. On 8 January white-and-gray emissions rose 150-250 m above the summit that drifted E and SE. Seismic signals indicated eruptive events at 0447, 1038, and 1145, but again no ash emissions were visually observed on 8 January. White-to-gray ash plumes continued to be observed on clear weather days during 9-15, 18-21, 25, and 29-30 January, rising 100-1,000 m above the summit and drifted generally NE, SE, N, and E, based on ground observations (figure 11).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 10. Webcam image of the start of the explosive eruption at Marapi at 0651 on 7 January 2023. White gas-and-steam emissions are visible to the left and gray ash emissions are visible on the right, drifting SE. Distinct ejecta was also visible mixed within the ash cloud. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 11. Webcam image showing thick, gray ash emissions rising 500 m above the summit of Marapi and drifting N and NE at 0953 on 11 January 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

White-and-gray and brown emissions persisted in February, rising 50-500 m above the summit and drifting E, S, SW, N, NE, and W, though weather sometimes prevented clear views of the summit. An eruption at 1827 on 10 February produced a black ash plume that rose 400 m above the summit and drifted NE and E (figure 12). Similar activity was reported on clear weather days, with white gas-and-steam emissions rising 50 m above the summit on 9, 11-12, 20, and 27 March and drifted E, SE, SW, NE, E, and N. On 17 March white-and-gray emissions rose 400 m above the summit and drifted N and E.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 12. Webcam image showing an eruptive event at 1829 on 10 February 2023 with an ash plume rising 400 m above the summit and drifting NE and E. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Geologic Background. Gunung Marapi, not to be confused with the better-known Merapi volcano on Java, is Sumatra's most active volcano. This massive complex stratovolcano rises 2,000 m above the Bukittinggi Plain in the Padang Highlands. A broad summit contains multiple partially overlapping summit craters constructed within the small 1.4-km-wide Bancah caldera. The summit craters are located along an ENE-WSW line, with volcanism migrating to the west. More than 50 eruptions, typically consisting of small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been recorded since the end of the 18th century; no lava flows outside the summit craters have been reported in historical time.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1).


Kikai (Japan) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Kikai

Japan

30.793°N, 130.305°E; summit elev. 704 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023

Kikai, located just S of the Ryukyu islands of Japan, contains a 19-km-wide mostly submarine caldera. The island of Satsuma Iwo Jima (also known as Satsuma-Iwo Jima and Tokara Iojima) is located at the NW caldera rim, as well as the island’s highest peak, Iodake. Its previous eruption period occurred on 6 October 2020 and was characterized by an explosion and thermal anomalies in the crater (BGVN 45:11). More recent activity has consisted of intermittent thermal activity and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 46:06). This report covers similar low-level activity including white gas-and-steam plumes, nighttime incandescence, seismicity, and discolored water during May 2021 through April 2023, using information from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and various satellite data. During this time, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a 5-level scale), according to JMA.

Activity was relatively low throughout the reporting period and has consisted of intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 200-1,400 m above the Iodake crater and nighttime incandescence was observed at the Iodake crater using a high-sensitivity surveillance camera. Each month, frequent volcanic earthquakes were detected, and sulfur dioxide masses were measured by the University of Tokyo Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Mishima Village, and JMA (table 6).

Table 6. Summary of gas-and-steam plume heights, number of volcanic earthquakes detected, and amount of sulfur dioxide emissions in tons per day (t/d). Courtesy of JMA monthly reports.

Month Max plume height (m) Volcanic earthquakes Sulfur dioxide emissions (t/d)
May 2021 400 162 900-1,300
Jun 2021 800 117 500
Jul 2021 1,400 324 800-1,500
Aug 2021 1,000 235 700-1,000
Sep 2021 800 194 500-1,100
Oct 2021 800 223 600-800
Nov 2021 900 200 400-900
Dec 2021 1,000 161 500-1,800
Jan 2022 1,000 164 600-1,100
Feb 2022 1,000 146 500-1,600
Mar 2022 1,200 171 500-1,200
Apr 2022 1,000 144 600-1,000
May 2022 1,200 126 300-500
Jun 2022 1,000 154 400
Jul 2022 1,300 153 600-1,100
Aug 2022 1,100 109 600-1,500
Sep 2022 1,000 170 900
Oct 2022 800 249 700-1,200
Nov 2022 800 198 800-1,200
Dec 2022 700 116 600-1,500
Jan 2023 800 146 500-1,400
Feb 2023 800 135 600-800
Mar 2023 1,100 94 500-600
Apr 2023 800 82 500-700

Sentinel-2 satellite images show weak thermal anomalies at the Iodake crater on clear weather days, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions and occasional discolored water (figure 24). On 17 January 2022 JMA conducted an aerial overflight in cooperation with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force’s 1st Air Group, which confirmed a white gas-and-steam plume rising from the Iodake crater (figure 25). They also observed plumes from fumaroles rising from around the crater and on the E, SW, and N slopes. In addition, discolored water was reported near the coast around Iodake, which JMA stated was likely related to volcanic activity (figure 25). Similarly, an overflight taken on 11 January 2023 showed white gas-and-steam emissions rising from the Iodake crater, as well as discolored water that spread E from the coast around the island. On 14 February 2023 white fumaroles and discolored water were also captured during an overflight (figure 26).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 24. Sentinel-2 satellite images of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing sets of visual (true color) and infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a) views on 7 December 2021 (top), 23 October 2022 (middle), and 11 January 2023 (bottom). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 25. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing a white gas-and-steam plume rising above the Iodake crater at 1119 on 17 January 2022. There was also green-yellow discolored water surrounding the coast of Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JMSDF via JMA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 26. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing white gas-and-steam plumes rising above the Iodake crater on 14 February 2023. Green-yellow discolored water surrounded Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JCG.

Geologic Background. Multiple eruption centers have exhibited recent activity at Kikai, a mostly submerged, 19-km-wide caldera near the northern end of the Ryukyu Islands south of Kyushu. It was the source of one of the world's largest Holocene eruptions about 6,300 years ago when rhyolitic pyroclastic flows traveled across the sea for a total distance of 100 km to southern Kyushu, and ashfall reached the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. The eruption devastated southern and central Kyushu, which remained uninhabited for several centuries. Post-caldera eruptions formed Iodake (or Iwo-dake) lava dome and Inamuradake scoria cone, as well as submarine lava domes. Recorded eruptions have occurred at or near Satsuma-Iojima (also known as Tokara-Iojima), a small 3 x 6 km island forming part of the NW caldera rim. Showa-Iojima lava dome (also known as Iojima-Shinto), a small island 2 km E of Satsuma-Iojima, was formed during submarine eruptions in 1934 and 1935. Mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions have occurred during the past few decades from Iodake, a rhyolitic lava dome at the eastern end of Satsuma-Iojima.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Japan Coast Guard (JCG) Volcano Database, Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department, 3-1-1, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8932, Japan (URL: https://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/kaiikiDB/kaiyo30-2.htm); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Lewotolok (Indonesia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Lewotolok

Indonesia

8.274°S, 123.508°E; summit elev. 1431 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Strombolian eruption continues through April 2023 with intermittent ash plumes

The current eruption at Lewotolok, in Indonesian’s Lesser Sunda Islands, began in late November 2020 and has included Strombolian explosions, occasional ash plumes, incandescent ejecta, intermittent thermal anomalies, and persistent white and white-and-gray emissions (BGVN 47:10). Similar activity continued during October 2022-April 2023, as described in this report based on information provided by Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM, or the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and satellite data.

During most days in October 2022 white and white-gray emissions rose as high as 200-600 m above the summit. Webcam images often showed incandescence above the crater rim. At 0351 on 14 October, an explosion produced a dense ash plume that rose about 1.2 km above the summit and drifted SW (figure 43). After this event, activity subsided and remained low through the rest of the year, but with almost daily white emissions.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 43. Webcam image of Lewotolok on 14 October 2022 showing a dense ash plume and incandescence above the crater. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

After more than two months of relative quiet, PVMBG reported that explosions at 0747 on 14 January 2023 and at 2055 on 16 January produced white-and-gray ash plumes that rose around 400 m above the summit and drifted E and SE (figure 44). During the latter half of January through April, almost daily white or white-and-gray emissions were observed rising 25-800 m above the summit, and nighttime webcam images often showed incandescent material being ejected above the summit crater. Strombolian activity was visible in webcam images at 2140 on 11 February, 0210 on 18 February, and during 22-28 March. Frequent hotspots were recorded by the MIROVA detection system starting in approximately the second week of March 2023 that progressively increased into April (figure 45).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 44. Webcam image of an explosion at Lewotolok on 14 January 2023 ejecting a small ash plume along with white emissions. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 45. MIROVA Log Radiative Power graph of thermal anomalies detected by the VIIRS satellite instrument at Lewotolok’s summit crater for the year beginning 24 July 2022. Clusters of mostly low-power hotspots occurred during August-October 2022, followed by a gap of more than four months before persistent and progressively stronger anomalies began in early March 2023. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Explosions that produced dense ash plumes as high as 750 m above the summit were described in Volcano Observatory Notices for Aviation (VONA) at 0517, 1623, and 2016 on 22 March, at 1744 on 24 March, at 0103 on 26 March, at 0845 and 1604 on 27 March (figure 46), and at 0538 on 28 March. According to the Darwin VAAC, on 6 April another ash plume rose to 1.8 km altitude (about 370 m above the summit) and drifted N.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 46. Webcam image of Lewotolok at 0847 on 27 March 2023 showing a dense ash plume from an explosion along with clouds and white emissions. Courtesy of MAGMA-Indonesia.

Sentinel-2 images over the previous year recorded thermal anomalies as well as the development of a lava flow that descended the NE flank beginning in June 2022 (figure 47). The volcano was often obscured by weather clouds, which also often hampered ground observations. Ash emissions were reported in March 2022 (BGVN 47:10), and clear imagery from 4 March 2022 showed recent lava flows confined to the crater, two thermal anomaly spots in the eastern part of the crater, and mainly white emissions from the SE. Thermal anomalies became stronger and more frequent in mid-May 2022, followed by strong Strombolian activity through June and July (BGVN 47:10); Sentinel-2 images on 2 June 2022 showed active lava flows within the crater and overflowing onto the NE flank. Clear images from 23 April 2023 (figure 47) show the extent of the cooled NE-flank lava flow, more extensive intra-crater flows, and two hotspots in slightly different locations compared to the previous March.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 47. Sentinel-2 satellite images of Lewotolok showing sets of visual (true color) and infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a) views on 4 March 2022, 2 June 2022, and 23 April 2023. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The Lewotolok (or Lewotolo) stratovolcano occupies the eastern end of an elongated peninsula extending north into the Flores Sea, connected to Lembata (formerly Lomblen) Island by a narrow isthmus. It is symmetrical when viewed from the north and east. A small cone with a 130-m-wide crater constructed at the SE side of a larger crater forms the volcano's high point. Many lava flows have reached the coastline. Eruptions recorded since 1660 have consisted of explosive activity from the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Barren Island (India) — April 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Barren Island

India

12.278°N, 93.858°E; summit elev. 354 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Thermal activity during December 2022-March 2023

Barren Island is part of a N-S-trending volcanic arc extending between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar). The caldera, which is open to the sea on the west, was created during a major explosive eruption in the late Pleistocene that produced pyroclastic flow and surge deposits. Eruptions dating back to 1787, have changed the morphology of the pyroclastic cone in the center of the caldera, and lava flows that fill much of the caldera floor have reached the sea along the western coast. Previous activity was detected during mid-May 2022, consisting of intermittent thermal activity. This report covers June 2022 through March 2023, which included strong thermal activity beginning in late December 2022, based on various satellite data.

Activity was relatively quiet during June through late December 2022 and mostly consisted of low-power thermal anomalies, based on the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph. During late December, a spike in both power and frequency of thermal anomalies was detected (figure 58). There was another pulse in thermal activity in mid-March, which consisted of more frequent and relatively strong anomalies.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 58. Occasional thermal anomalies were detected during June through late December 2022 at Barren Island, but by late December through early January 2023, there was a marked increase in thermal activity, both in power and frequency, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). After this spike in activity, anomalies occurred at a more frequent rate. In late March, another pulse in activity was detected, although the power was not as strong as that initial spike during December-January. Courtesy of MIROVA.

The Suomi NPP/VIIRS sensor data showed five thermal alerts on 29 December 2022. The number of alerts increased to 19 on 30 December. According to the Darwin VAAC, ash plumes identified in satellite images captured at 2340 on 30 December and at 0050 on 31 December rose to 1.5 km altitude and drifted SW. The ash emissions dissipated by 0940. On 31 December, a large thermal anomaly was detected; based on a Sentinel-2 infrared satellite image, the anomaly was relatively strong and extended to the N (figure 59).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 59. Thermal anomalies of varying intensities were visible in the crater of Barren Island on 31 December 2022 (top left), 15 January 2023 (top right), 24 February 2023 (bottom left), and 31 March 2023 (bottom right), as seen in these Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images. The anomalies on 31 December and 31 March were notably strong and extended to the N and N-S, respectively. Images using “Atmospheric penetration” rendering (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Thermal activity continued during January through March. Sentinel-2 infrared satellite data showed some thermal anomalies of varying intensity on clear weather days on 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 January 2023, 9, 14, 19, and 24 February 2023, and 21, 26, and 31 March (figure 59). According to Suomi NPP/VIIRS sensor data, a total of 30 thermal anomalies were detected over 18 days on 2-3, 7, 9-14, 16-17, 20, 23, 25, and 28-31 January. The sensor data showed a total of six hotspots detected over six days on 1, 4-5, and 10-12 February. During March, a total of 33 hotspots were visible over 11 days on 20-31 March. Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued on 25, 27, and 29 March.

Geologic Background. Barren Island, a possession of India in the Andaman Sea about 135 km NE of Port Blair in the Andaman Islands, is the only historically active volcano along the N-S volcanic arc extending between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar). It is the emergent summit of a volcano that rises from a depth of about 2250 m. The small, uninhabited 3-km-wide island contains a roughly 2-km-wide caldera with walls 250-350 m high. The caldera, which is open to the sea on the west, was created during a major explosive eruption in the late Pleistocene that produced pyroclastic-flow and -surge deposits. Historical eruptions have changed the morphology of the pyroclastic cone in the center of the caldera, and lava flows that fill much of the caldera floor have reached the sea along the western coast.

Information Contacts: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); NASA Worldview (URL: https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/).


Villarrica (Chile) — April 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Villarrica

Chile

39.42°S, 71.93°W; summit elev. 2847 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Nighttime crater incandescence, ash emissions, and seismicity during October 2022-March 2023

Villarrica, located in central Chile, consists of a 2-km-wide caldera that formed about 3,500 years ago, located at the base of the presently active cone. Historical eruptions date back to 1558 and have been characterized by mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusions. The current eruption period began in December 2014 and has recently consisted of ongoing seismicity, gas-and-steam emissions, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:10). This report covers activity during October 2022 through March 2023 and describes Strombolian explosions, ash emissions, and crater incandescence. Information for this report primarily comes from the Southern Andes Volcano Observatory (Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur, OVDAS), part of Chile's National Service of Geology and Mining (Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, SERNAGEOMIN) and satellite data.

Seismicity during October consisted of discrete long-period (LP)-type events, tremor (TR), and volcano-tectonic (VT)-type events. Webcam images showed eruption plumes rising as high as 460 m above the crater rim; plumes deposited tephra on the E, S, and SW flanks within 500 m of the crater on 2, 18, 23, and 31 October. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 80-300 m above the crater accompanied by crater incandescence during 2-3 October. There was a total of 5 VT-type events, 10,625 LP-type events, and 2,232 TR-type events detected throughout the month. Sulfur dioxide data was obtained by the Differential Absorption Optical Spectroscopy Equipment (DOAS) installed 6 km in an ESE direction. The average value of the sulfur dioxide emissions was 535 ± 115 tons per day (t/d); the highest daily maximum was 1,273 t/d on 13 October. These values were within normal levels and were lower compared to September. During the night of 3-4 October Strombolian activity ejected blocks as far as 40 m toward the NW flank. Small, gray-brown ash pulses rose 60 m above the crater accompanied white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 40-300 m high during 4-5 October. In addition, crater incandescence and Strombolian explosions that ejected blocks were reported during 4-5 and 9-11 October. Based on satellite images from 12 October, ballistic ejecta traveled as far as 400 m and the resulting ash was deposited 3.2 km to the E and SE and 900 m to the NW.

Satellite images from 14 October showed an active lava lake that covered an area of 36 square meters in the E part of the crater floor. There was also evidence of a partial collapse (less than 300 square meters) at the inner SSW crater rim. POVI posted an 18 October photo that showed incandescence above the crater rim, noting that crater incandescence was visible during clear weather nights. In addition, webcam images at 1917 showed lava fountaining and Strombolian explosions; tourists also described seeing splashes of lava ejected from a depth of 80 m and hearing loud degassing sounds. Tephra deposits were visible around the crater rim and on the upper flanks on 24 October. On 25 October SERNAGEOMIN reported that both the number and amplitude of LP earthquakes had increased, and continuous tremor also increased; intense crater incandescence was visible in satellite images. On 31 October Strombolian explosions intensified and ejected material onto the upper flanks.

Activity during November consisted of above-baseline seismicity, including intensifying continuous tremor and an increase in the number of LP earthquakes. On 1 November a lava fountain was visible rising above the crater rim. Nighttime crater incandescence was captured in webcam images on clear weather days. Strombolian explosions ejected incandescent material on the NW and SW flanks during 1, 2, and 6-7 November. POVI reported that the width of the lava fountains that rose above the crater rim on 2 November suggested that the vent on the crater floor was roughly 6 m in diameter. Based on reports from observers and analyses of satellite imagery, material that was deposited on the upper flanks, primarily to the NW, consisted of clasts up to 20 cm in diameter. During an overflight on 19 November SERNAGEOMIN scientists observed a cone on the crater floor with an incandescent vent at its center that contained a lava lake. Deposits of ejecta were also visible on the flanks. That same day a 75-minute-long series of volcano-tectonic earthquakes was detected at 1940; a total of 21 events occurred 7.8 km ESE of the crater. Another overflight on 25 November showed the small cone on the crater floor with an incandescent lava lake at the center; the temperature of the lava lake was 1,043 °C, based data gathered during the overflight.

Similar seismicity, crater incandescence, and gas-and-steam emissions continued during December. On 1 December incandescent material was ejected 80-220 m above the crater rim. During an overflight on 6 December, intense gas-and-steam emissions from the lava lake was reported, in addition to tephra deposits on the S and SE flanks as far as 500 m from the crater. During 7-12 December seismicity increased slightly and white, low-altitude gas-and-steam emissions and crater incandescence were occasionally visible. On 24 December at 0845 SERNAGEOMIN reported an increase in Strombolian activity; explosions ejected material that generally rose 100 m above the crater, although one explosion ejected incandescent tephra as far as 400 m from the crater onto the SW flank. According to POVI, 11 explosions ejected incandescent material that affected the upper SW flank between 2225 on 25 December to 0519 on 26 December. POVI recorded 21 Strombolian explosions that ejected incandescent material onto the upper SW flank from 2200 on 28 December to 0540 on 29 December. More than 100 Strombolian explosions ejected material onto the upper W and NW flanks during 30-31 December. On 30 December at 2250 an explosion was detected that generated an eruptive column rising 120 m above the crater and ejecting incandescent material 300 m on the NW flank (figure 120). Explosions detected at 2356 on 31 December ejected material 480 m from the crater rim onto the NW flank and at 0219 material was deposited on the same flank as far as 150 m. Both explosions ejected material as high as 120 m above the crater rim.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 120. Webcam image of a Strombolian explosion at Villarrica on 30 December 2022 (local time) that ejected incandescent material 300 m onto the NW flank, accompanied by emissions and crater incandescence. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN (Reporte Especial de Actividad Volcanica (REAV), Region De La Araucania y Los Rios, Volcan Villarrica, 30 de diciembre de 2022, 23:55 Hora local).

During January 2023, Strombolian explosions and lava fountaining continued mainly in the crater, ejecting material 100 m above the crater. Gas-and-steam emissions rose 40-260 m above the crater and drifted in different directions, and LP-type events continued. Emissions during the night of 11 January including some ash rose 80 m above the crater and as far as 250 m NE flank. POVI scientists reported about 70 lava fountaining events from 2130 on 14 January to 0600 on 15 January. At 2211 on 15 January there was an increase in frequency of Strombolian explosions that ejected incandescent material 60-150 m above the crater. Some ashfall was detected around the crater. POVI noted that on 19 January lava was ejected as high as 140 m above the crater rim and onto the W and SW flanks. Explosion noises were heard on 19 and 22 January in areas within a radius of 10 km. During 22-23 January Strombolian explosions ejected incandescent material 60-100 m above the crater that drifted SE. A seismic event at 1204 on 27 January was accompanied by an ash plume that rose 220 m above the crater and drifted E (figure 121); later that same day at 2102 an ash plume rose 180 m above the crater and drifted E.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 121. Webcam image of an ash plume at Villarrica on 27 January rising 220 m above the crater and drifting E. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN (Reporte Especial de Actividad Volcanica (REAV), Region De La Araucania y Los Rios, Volcan Villarrica, 27 de enero de 2023, 12:35 Hora local).

Seismicity, primarily characterized by LP-type events, and Strombolian explosions persisted during February and March. POVI reported that three explosions were heard during 1940-1942 on 6 February, and spatter was seen rising 30 m above the crater rim hours later. On 9 February lava fountains were visible rising 50 m above the crater rim. On 17 February Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater rim and onto the upper SW flank. Webcam images from 20 February showed two separate fountains of incandescent material, which suggested that a second vent had opened to the E of the first vent. Spatter was ejected as high as 80 m above the crater rim and onto the upper NE flank. A sequence of Strombolian explosions was visible from 2030 on 20 February to 0630 on 21 February. Material was ejected as high as 80 m above the crater rim and onto the upper E flank. LP-type earthquakes recorded 1056 and at 1301 on 27 February were associated with ash plumes that rose 300 m above the crater and drifted NE (figure 122). Crater incandescence above the crater rim was observed in webcam images on 13 March, which indicated Strombolian activity. POVI posted a webcam image from 2227 on 18 March showing Strombolian explosions that ejected material as high as 100 m above the crater rim. Explosions were heard up to 8 km away. On 19 March at 1921 an ash emission rose 340 m above the crater and drifted NE. On 21 and 26 March Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 and 110 m above the crater rim, respectively. On 21 March Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater rim. Low-intensity nighttime crater incandescence was detected by surveillance cameras on 24 March.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 122. Photo of an ash plume rising 300 m above the crater of Villarrica and drifting NE on 27 February 2023. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN (Reporte Especial de Actividad Volcanica (REAV), Region De La Araucania y Los Rios, Volcan Villarrica, 27 de febrero de 2023, 11:10 Hora local).

Infrared MODIS satellite data processed by MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) detected an increase in thermal activity during mid-November, which corresponds to sustained Strombolian explosions, lava fountaining, and crater incandescence (figure 123). This activity was also consistently captured on clear weather days throughout the reporting period in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images (figure 124).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 123. Low-power thermal anomalies were detected during August through October 2022 at Villarrica, based on this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). During mid-November, the power and frequency of the anomalies increased and remained at a consistent level through March 2023. Thermal activity consisted of Strombolian explosions, lava fountains, and crater incandescence. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 124. Consistent bright thermal anomalies were visible at the summit crater of Villarrica in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images throughout the reporting period, as shown here on 19 December 2022 (left) and 9 February 2023 (right). Occasional gas-and-steam emissions also accompanied the thermal activity. Images use Atmospheric penetration rendering (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. The glacier-covered Villarrica stratovolcano, in the northern Lakes District of central Chile, is ~15 km south of the city of Pucon. A 2-km-wide caldera that formed about 3,500 years ago is located at the base of the presently active, dominantly basaltic to basaltic-andesite cone at the NW margin of a 6-km-wide Pleistocene caldera. More than 30 scoria cones and fissure vents are present on the flanks. Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows that have extended up to 20 km from the volcano were produced during the Holocene. Lava flows up to 18 km long have issued from summit and flank vents. Eruptions documented since 1558 CE have consisted largely of mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion. Glaciers cover 40 km2 of the volcano, and lahars have damaged towns on its flanks.

Information Contacts: Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN), Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur (OVDAS), Avda Sta María No. 0104, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.sernageomin.cl/); Proyecto Observación Villarrica Internet (POVI) (URL: http://www.povi.cl/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).


Fuego (Guatemala) — April 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Fuego

Guatemala

14.473°N, 90.88°W; summit elev. 3763 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, avalanches, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023

Fuego, one of three large stratovolcanoes overlooking the city of Antigua, Guatemala, has been vigorously erupting since January 2002, with recorded eruptions dating back to 1531 CE. Eruptive activity has included major ashfalls, pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and lahars. Frequent explosions with ash emissions, block avalanches, and lava flows have persisted since 2018. More recently, activity remained relatively consistent with daily explosions, ash plumes, ashfall, avalanches, and lahars (BGVN 48:03). This report covers similar activity during December 2022 through March 2023, based on information from the Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrologia (INSIVUMEH) daily reports, Coordinadora Nacional para la Reducción de Desastres (CONRED) newsletters, and various satellite data.

Daily explosions reported throughout December 2022-March 2023 generated ash plumes to 6 km altitude that drifted as far as 60 km in multiple directions. The explosions also caused rumbling sounds of varying intensities, with shock waves that vibrated the roofs and windows of homes near the volcano. Incandescent pulses of material rose 100-500 m above the crater, which caused block avalanches around the crater and toward the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá (SW), Ceniza (SSW), El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas (SE), Seca (W), and Trinidad (S) drainages. Fine ashfall was also frequently reported in nearby communities (table 27). MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed frequent, moderate thermal activity throughout the reporting period; however, there was a brief decline in both power and frequency during late-to-mid-January 2023 (figure 166). A total of 79 MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued: 16 during December 2022, 17 during January 2023, 23 during February, and 23 during March. Some of these thermal evets were also visible in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite imagery at the summit crater, which also showed occasional incandescent block avalanches descending the S, W, and NW flanks, and accompanying ash plumes that drifted W (figure 167).

Table 27. Activity at Fuego during December 2022 through March 2023 included multiple explosions every hour. Ash emissions rose as high as 6 km altitude and drifted generally W and SW as far as 60 km, causing ashfall in many communities around the volcano. Data from daily INSIVUMEH reports and CONRED newsletters.

Month Explosions per hour Ash plume altitude (max) Ash plume distance (km) and direction Drainages affected by block avalanches Communities reporting ashfall
Dec 2022 1-12 6 km WSW, W, SW, NW, S, SE, NE, and E, 10-30 km Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas, Seca, and Trinidad Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Finca Palo Verde, Yepocapa, Yucales, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceilán, San Andrés Osuna, and Aldea La Cruz
Jan 2023 1-12 5 km W, SW, NW, S, N, NE, E, and SE, 7-60 km Ceniza, Las Lajas, Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Trinidad, Seca, Honda, and El Jute Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Palo Verde, Yucales, Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceylon, Alotenango, and San Andrés Osuna
Feb 2023 1-12 4.9 km SW, W, NW, and N, 10-30 km Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, Las Lajas, Seca, Trinidad, El Jute, and Honda Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, Palo Verde, San Pedro Yepocapa, El Porvenir, Sangre de Cristo, La Soledad, Acatenango, El Campamento, and La Asunción
Mar 2023 3-11 5 km W, SW, NW, NE, N, S, SE, and E, 10-30 km Seca, Ceniza, Taniluyá, Las Lajas, Honda, Trinidad, El Jute, and Santa Teresa Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, La Asunción, Palo Verde, La Rochela, San Andrés Osuna, Ceilán, and Aldeas
Figure (see Caption) Figure 166. Thermal activity at Fuego shown in the MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power) was at moderate levels during a majority of December 2022 through March 2023, with a brief decline in both power and frequency during late-to-mid-January 2023. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 167. Frequent incandescent block avalanches descended multiple drainages at Fuego during December 2022 through March 2023, as shown in these Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images on 10 December 2022 (top left), 4 January 2023 (top right), 18 February 2023 (bottom left), and 30 March 2023 (bottom right). Gray ash plumes were also occasionally visible rising above the summit crater and drifting W, as seen on 4 January and 30 March. Avalanches affected the NW and S flanks on 10 December, the SW and W flanks on 18 February, and the NW, W, and SW flanks on 30 March. Images use Atmospheric penetration rendering (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Daily explosions ranged between 1 and 12 per hour during December 2022, generating ash plumes that rose to 4.5-6 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km in multiple directions. These explosions created rumbling sounds with a shock wave that vibrated the roofs and windows of homes near the volcano. Frequent white gas-and-steam plumes rose to 4.6 km altitude. Strombolian activity resulted in incandescent pulses that generally rose 100-500 m above the crater, which generated weak-to-moderate avalanches around the crater and toward the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas, Seca, and Trinidad drainages, where material sometimes reached vegetation. Fine ashfall was recorded in Panimaché I and II (8 km SW), Morelia (9 km SW), Santa Sofía (12 km SW), El Porvenir (8 km ENE), Finca Palo Verde, Yepocapa (8 km NW), Yucales (12 km SW), Sangre de Cristo (8 km WSW), La Rochela, Ceilán, San Andrés Osuna, and Aldea La Cruz. INSIVUMEH reported that on 10 December a lava flow formed in the Ceniza drainage and measured 800 m long; it remained active at least through 12 December and block avalanches were reported at the front of the flow. A pyroclastic flow was reported at 1100 on 10 December, descending the Las Lajas drainage for several kilometers and reaching the base of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows were also observed in the Ceniza drainage for several kilometers, reaching the base of the volcano on 11 December. Ash plumes rose as high as 6 km altitude, according to a special bulletin from INSIVUMEH. On 31 December explosions produced incandescent pulses that rose 300 m above the crater, which covered the upper part of the cone.

Activity during January 2023 consisted of 1-12 daily explosions, which produced ash plumes that rose to 4.2-5 km altitude and drifted 7-60 km in multiple directions (figure 168). Incandescent pulses of material were observed 100-350 m above the crater, which generated avalanches around the crater and down the Ceniza, Las Lajas, Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Trinidad, Seca, Honda, and El Jute drainages. Sometimes, the avalanches resuspended older fine material 100-500 m above the surface that drifted W and SW. Ashfall was recorded in Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Palo Verde, Yucales, Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceylon, Alotenango, and San Andrés Osuna. Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes rose to 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and NW.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 168. Webcam image showing an ash plume rising above Fuego on 15 January 2023. Courtesy of INSIVUMEH.

There were 1-12 daily explosions recorded through February, which generated ash plumes that rose to 4.2-4.9 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km SW, W, NW, and N. Intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions rose 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and SW. During the nights and early mornings, incandescent pulses were observed 100-400 m above the crater. Weak-to-moderate avalanches were also observed down the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, Las Lajas, Seca, Trinidad, El Jute, and Honda drainages, sometimes reaching the edge of vegetated areas. Occasional ashfall was reported in Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, Palo Verde, San Pedro Yepocapa, El Porvenir, Sangre de Cristo, La Soledad, Acatenango, El Campamento, and La Asunción. On 18 February strong winds resuspended previous ash deposits as high as 1 km above the surface that blew 12 km SW and S.

During March, daily explosions ranged from 3-11 per hour, producing ash plumes that rose to 4-5 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km W, SW, NW, NE, N, S, SE, and E. During the night and early morning, crater incandescence (figure 169) and incandescent pulses of material were observed 50-400 m above the crater. Weak-to-moderate avalanches affected the Seca, Ceniza, Taniluyá, Las Lajas, Honda, Trinidad, El Jute, and Santa Teresa drainages, sometimes reaching the edge of vegetation. Frequent ashfall was detected in Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, La Asunción, Palo Verde, La Rochela, San Andrés Osuna, Ceilán, and Aldeas. Weak ashfall was recorded in San Andrés Osuna, La Rochela, Ceylon during 8-9 March. A lahar was reported in the Ceniza drainage on 15 March, carrying fine, hot volcanic material, tree branches, trunks, and blocks from 30 cm to 1.5 m in diameter. On 18 March lahars were observed in the Las Lajas and El Jute drainages, carrying fine volcanic material, tree branches and trunks, and blocks from 30 cm to 1.5 m in diameter. As a result, there was also damage to the road infrastructure between El Rodeo and El Zapote.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 169. Sentinel-2 infrared satellite image showing Fuego’s crater incandescence accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted SW on 25 March 2023. Images use bands 12, 11, 5. Courtesy of INSIVUMEH.

Geologic Background. Volcán Fuego, one of Central America's most active volcanoes, is also one of three large stratovolcanoes overlooking Guatemala's former capital, Antigua. The scarp of an older edifice, Meseta, lies between Fuego and Acatenango to the north. Construction of Meseta dates back to about 230,000 years and continued until the late Pleistocene or early Holocene. Collapse of Meseta may have produced the massive Escuintla debris-avalanche deposit, which extends about 50 km onto the Pacific coastal plain. Growth of the modern Fuego volcano followed, continuing the southward migration of volcanism that began at the mostly andesitic Acatenango. Eruptions at Fuego have become more mafic with time, and most historical activity has produced basaltic rocks. Frequent vigorous historical eruptions have been recorded since the onset of the Spanish era in 1524, and have produced major ashfalls, along with occasional pyroclastic flows and lava flows.

Information Contacts: Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia e Hydrologia (INSIVUMEH), Unit of Volcanology, Geologic Department of Investigation and Services, 7a Av. 14-57, Zona 13, Guatemala City, Guatemala (URL: http://www.insivumeh.gob.gt/ ); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

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Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network - Volume 26, Number 11 (November 2001)

Managing Editor: Richard Wunderman

Avachinsky (Russia)

Modest October steam plumes reach 10 km long; minor ash eruption 5 October

Cameroon (Cameroon)

Late June non-volcanic floods and landslides take ten's of lives; 1,000 homeless

Fonualei (Tonga)

Typical steam emissions observed in August 2000

Kavachi (Solomon Islands)

Daily eruptions August to mid-September 2001; eruption 27 November

Kick 'em Jenny (Grenada)

Submarine eruptions recorded during December 2001

Lokon-Empung (Indonesia)

March, May, and August eruptions; plumes to 1.5 km over summit

Poas (Costa Rica)

Fluctuating water level in crater lake; variable fumarole activity

Rincon de la Vieja (Costa Rica)

Fumarolically active through August 2001

San Cristobal (Nicaragua)

Minor ash eruptions during May-November 2001; elevated seismicity

Turrialba (Costa Rica)

Seismic and fumarolic activity during January 2000-August 2001

Unnamed (Tonga)

Possible source for September T-waves and November pumice rafts

Yasur (Vanuatu)

Still erupting despite 10-fold tremor decrease beginning November 1999



Avachinsky (Russia) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Avachinsky

Russia

53.256°N, 158.836°E; summit elev. 2717 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Modest October steam plumes reach 10 km long; minor ash eruption 5 October

Seismic activity increased at Avachinsky during early December 1998 (BGVN 23:11). After that, seismicity stayed mostly at background levels until 25 August 2001, when it increased slightly, and was variable through at least October.

On 31 August, three earthquakes were registered, M 1.7, 2.2, and 2.6. On 20 September an M 1.7 earthquake occurred. On 21 September from 1705 until 1721, a series of earthquakes within the volcano's edifice was recorded, including an M 2.5 event at a depth of ~4 km. On 22 September at 0500 UTC, a 3-pixel thermal anomaly was clearly seen in an AVHRR image of Avachinsky.

At 0750 on 5 October, with an accompanying M 1.5 earthquake, a small explosion lofted ash to less than 1 km above the crater with minor ash falling on the SE flank. Around 19 October a series of weak local earthquakes (~ 50 events of M 0.5-1.5) was registered within 24 hours in the edifice at a depth of ~700 m beneath the summit.

Weak fumarolic activity was observed during 20, 23, 26, and 28 September, and 2-4, 10, 11, 16, and 17 October. In contrast, on 6 October fumarolic activity was observed over the entire crater. Small mudflows down the SE flank were visible in late September after every snowfall, presumably due to strong thermal activity of a fumarole on the SE crater rim. Gas-and-steam plumes were observed several times during September and October 2001 (figure 2 and table 1) when clouds did not obscure the volcano.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 2. Avachinsky (summit elevation, 2,741 m) and Koryaksky (3,456 m) stratovolcanoes as seen from the city of Petropavlovsk on 13 October 2001. They reside 35-40 km NE of the city and their summits are separated by 12 km. A white plume is extending E from Avachinsky. Courtesy of KVERT.

Table 1. Gas-and-steam plumes reported at Avachinsky during September and October 2001. Courtesy KVERT.

Date Time Plume height / location
19 Sep 2001 -- 30 m above crater.
06 Oct 2001 1250 Low over crater, extending 10 km SE.
07 Oct 2001 0850 Rising 50 m over the crater and extending SSE.
07 Oct 2001 1700 Rising 200 m above crater.
09 Oct 2001 -- Rising low above crater, extending 5 km E.
11 Oct 2001 0940 Rising 200 m and extending 5 km E.
12 Oct 2001 2000 Rising over the crater and extending 1 km E.
13 Oct 2001 1130 Extending 10 km E.
13 Oct 2001 2000 Extending 10 km E.
20 Oct 2001 1430-1930 Rising ~1 km above the crater; extending 20 km SE.
21-22 Oct 2001 -- Rising 50-200 m above the crater and extending SE, E, and NE.

A band-6 satellite image on 2 October showed a broad area of warm ground that appeared to follow the rim of the crater, with a small area in the center of the crater. Band-7 data on 2 October showed hotter areas in the SE and SW parts of the crater, and possibly on the N side. On 5 October, the Concern Color Code was increased from Green (volcano is dormant; normal seismicity and fumarolic activity) to Yellow (volcano is restless; eruption may occur). A large, elongate cloud was recorded extending to the SE from the volcano at 1830 on 8 October.

The last explosive eruption at Avachinsky occurred in 1991 and lasted 6 days. The eruption began with two ash explosions directed SW toward Petropavlovsk, and covered the town with an ash layer a few millimeters thick. Effusion of lava began 28 hours later. Further explosive activity occurred simultaneously with the lava emission. As a result of the eruption, a lava plug filled the entire crater.

The Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) speculated that the recent activity at Avachinsky could indicate the occurrence of a scenario similar to the eruptions in the years 1737 and 1827. Present activity could lead to a large eruption accompanied by directed blasts with voluminous tephra, debris avalanches, and mudflows. Or, gradual damage of the plug might occur by various means, including earthquakes, small explosive discharges, mudflows, etc. Both scenarios could pose a potential hazard to nearby farm cottages (dachas), the Radyugina settlement, and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky city.

Geologic Background. Avachinsky, one of Kamchatka's most active volcanoes, rises above Petropavlovsk, Kamchatka's largest city. It began to form during the middle or late Pleistocene, and is flanked to the SE by Kozelsky volcano, which has a large crater breached to the NE. A large collapse scarp open to the SW was created when a major debris avalanche about 30,000-40,000 years ago buried an area of about 500 km2 to the south, underlying the city of Petropavlovsk. Reconstruction of the volcano took place in two stages, the first of which began about 18,000 years before present (BP), and the second 7,000 years BP. Most eruptions have been explosive, with pyroclastic flows and hot lahars being directed primarily to the SW by the collapse scarp, although there have also been relatively short lava flows. The frequent historical eruptions have been similar in style and magnitude to previous Holocene eruptions.

Information Contacts: Olga Girina and Lilia Bazanov, Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Institute of Volcanic Geology and Geochemistry, Piip Ave. 9, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia; John C. Eichelberger and Tom Murray, Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of a) U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667, USA (URL: http://www.avo.alaska. edu/), b) Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA, and c) Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA.


Cameroon (Cameroon) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Cameroon

Cameroon

4.203°N, 9.17°E; summit elev. 4095 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Late June non-volcanic floods and landslides take ten's of lives; 1,000 homeless

Heavy downpours struck Limbe (formerly Victoria), a coastal town located on the southern foot of Mt. Cameroon, during 26-27 June 2001. They led to a series of floods and landslides that killed ~23 people and rendered over 1,000 people homeless. People were buried alive as the floods and landslides reduced houses to mud. The disaster took hundreds of thousands of dollars in property and left surviving residents deeply shaken.

Limbe (population, over 80,000) lies ~25 km directly S of Mt. Cameroon's summit. The town sits on the Atlantic coastal plain, an area bordered on its E and N sides by high, steep slopes of unconsolidated pyroclastic cones. Most of these cones are still geologically very young, most likely Late Quaternary in age, judging from their freshness and lack of vegetation. Other cones appear older as they have developed an appreciable soil overburden capable of supporting deep-rooted woody vegetation.

The main landslide occurred in the section of Limbe called Mabeta. There it covered four houses and killed 21 people. Rescue teams deployed from neighboring towns used a front-end loader to search for survivors and to excavate battered corpses who were seen by passing residents. The floods also took a boy who had sought refuge in a coconut tree. Many other sections of the town, including Down Beach Limbe, also suffered significant losses and damage. Some news sources cited 19 people confirmed dead and an additional 15 missing.

A government crisis commission was set up to handle the disaster. They were charged with finding ways to move people away from the disaster zone and resettle them elsewhere, and to propose new ways of avoiding future disasters in Limbe.

Geologic Background. Mount Cameroon, one of Africa's largest volcanoes, rises above the coast of west Cameroon. The massive steep-sided volcano of dominantly basaltic-to-trachybasaltic composition forms a volcanic horst constructed above a basement of Precambrian metamorphic rocks covered with Cretaceous to Quaternary sediments. More than 100 small cinder cones, often fissure-controlled parallel to the long axis of the 1400 km3 edifice, occur on the flanks and surrounding lowlands. A large satellitic peak, Etinde (also known as Little Cameroon), is located on the S flank near the coast. Historical activity was first observed in the 5th century BCE by the Carthaginian navigator Hannon. During historical time, moderate explosive and effusive eruptions have occurred from both summit and flank vents. A 1922 SW-flank eruption produced a lava flow that reached the Atlantic coast, and a lava flow from a 1999 south-flank eruption stopped only 200 m from the sea. Explosive activity from two vents on the upper SE flank was reported in May 2000.

Information Contacts: B. Ateba, R.U. Ubangoh, N. Ntepe, and F.T. Aka., IRGM/ARGV, P.O. Box 370, Buea, Cameroon; International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), PO Box 372, CH-1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland (URL: http://www.ifrc.org/).


Fonualei (Tonga) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Fonualei

Tonga

18.023°S, 174.317°W; summit elev. 188 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Typical steam emissions observed in August 2000

In February 1974 a ship's captain reported that Fonualei was "emitting small quantities of steam, foam, and rocks all around the crater" (CSLP Card 1802). Large fluctuations in fumarolic activity were observed by geologists in July 1979 (SEAN 04:12).

On 19 August 2000, Jeff and Raine Williams, aboard the S/Y Gryphon, passed Fonualei enroute from Tonga to Wallis Island. They noted that the lower part of the island was covered with lush tropical vegetation, but the upper parts were scarred brown and gray, and steam was venting from the top of the island. Along the coast were rugged volcanic cliffs and black sand beaches.

[Sections about seismicity and pumice rafts have been moved. Later investigations showed that they probably originated from an unnamed submarine volcano in the Tonga Islands.]

Geologic Background. The small island of Fonualei (~2 km diameter) contains a fumarolically active crater breached to the SE with a fresh lava flow extending to the sea and forming a rugged shoreline. Steep, inward-facing scarps mark the rim of a partially exposed caldera. Blocky lava flows fill much of the northern caldera moat and reach the sea to the north and east. In contrast to the andesitic and basaltic rocks of other islands of the Tonga arc, Fonualei lavas are of dominantly dacitic composition. Eruptions have been recorded since 1791, with the largest taking place in June 1846, when explosive eruptions produced large pumice rafts, ashfall damaged crops on the island of Vava'u (70 km SSE), and ash was reported by vessels up to 950 km distant. In 1939 explosive and effusive activity occurred from summit and flank vents, and water spouts were reported 1.6 km SE of the island.

Information Contacts: Jeff and Raine Williams, P.O. Box 729, Funkstown, MD 21734, USA.


Kavachi (Solomon Islands) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Kavachi

Solomon Islands

8.991°S, 157.979°E; summit elev. -20 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Daily eruptions August to mid-September 2001; eruption 27 November

The last report (BGVN 25:04) described the submarine eruption that occurred in May 2000. During August through mid-September 2001, Corey Howell of the Wilderness Lodge (adjacent Peava village, Gatokae Island; 8° 47'S, 158° 14'E) reported that Kavachi erupted daily. During August ash and volcanic projectiles were observed rising ~400 m above sea level and the glow from the volcano was visible from the coast of Gatokae Island 32 km away. [According to Howell, the current phase of eruptive activity has been in progress since at least November 1999, with eruptions ranging from a minimum of once a week to eruptions from 5-15 minutes sustained over several days.]

Howell reported that activity waned in late September. As of 1 November no eruptive activity had been observed at Kavachi for about five weeks, but the observation post sat at the coast of Gatokae (also written Nggatokae) Island ~26 km NE of the volcano (see regional maps, CSLP Card 8028; BGVN 16:04). Low-level activity may have occurred that was not visible from the observation post.

A visit on 25 November revealed upwelling sulfur, mud, and tiny pieces of volcanic rock. The pieces of rock covered the sea surface over an area ~200 m across. A brownish green stain clouded the seawater. No explosive eruptions were seen during 6 hours of observation. Howell further noted that on 27 November Kavachi resumed explosive activity with columns reaching ~2 km high.

Reference. Johnson, W., and Tuni, D., Kavachi, 1987, An active forearc volcano in the western Solomon Islands: reported eruptions between 1950 and 1982, in Taylor, B., and Exon, N.F. (eds.), Marine geology, geophysics, and geochemistry of the Woodlark Basin, Solomon Islands: Circum-Pacific Council Energy Min Resour Earth Sci Ser, v. 7, p. 89-112.

Geologic Background. Named for a sea-god of the Gatokae and Vangunu peoples, Kavachi is located in the Solomon Islands south of Vangunu Island. Sometimes referred to as Rejo te Kvachi ("Kavachi's Oven"), this shallow submarine basaltic-to-andesitic volcano has produced ephemeral islands up to 1 km long many times since its first recorded eruption during 1939. Residents of the nearby islands of Vanguna and Nggatokae (Gatokae) reported "fire on the water" prior to 1939, a possible reference to earlier eruptions. The roughly conical edifice rises from water depths of 1.1-1.2 km on the north and greater depths to the SE. Frequent shallow submarine and occasional subaerial eruptions produce phreatomagmatic explosions that eject steam, ash, and incandescent bombs. On a number of occasions lava flows were observed on the ephemeral islands.

Information Contacts: Corey Howell, The Wilderness Lodge, PO Box 206, Honiara, Solomon Islands (URL: http://www.thewildernesslodge.org).


Kick 'em Jenny (Grenada) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Kick 'em Jenny

Grenada

12.3°N, 61.64°W; summit elev. -185 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Submarine eruptions recorded during December 2001

Submarine volcanic eruptions occurred at Kick-'em-Jenny during 4-6 December 2001. The last reported activity at the volcano was in March 1990 when strong acoustic T-phase signals were recorded and interpreted to have been associated with a submarine eruption (BGVN 15:03).

The Seismic Research Unit (SRU) of the University of the West Indies reported that the first signs of unrest at Kick-'em-Jenny were observed in October 2001 when a slight increase in seismicity was recorded at stations close to the volcano. Due to the observed increase in seismicity, on 12 September the Alert Level at the volcano was raised from Green ("volcano is quiet") to Yellow ("volcano is restless"). Increased seismicity continued through November, further increasing during 1-2 December when three small earthquakes were recorded.

On 4 December a burst of seismicity began at 0600 and lasted until 1100 (figure 1). During 0600 to 1000 the Mount St. Catherine seismograph in Grenada, ~16 km SSW of the volcano (figures 1 and 2), recorded one event every 4 minutes. By about 1000 the earthquake rate had increased to more than one per minute until 1100. Seismographs at the Sisters station, ~2 km E of the volcano, recorded earthquakes in such rapid succession that activity appeared to be continuous.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 1. The number of earthquakes from Kick-'em-Jenny recorded per hour and cumulatively at Mount St. Catherine seismograph station during 4 December at 0630 to 6 December at 1830. The station is 16 km SSW of the volcano. "T's" represent the times when T-Phase signals were recorded. In addition to those shown, a short T-phase signal was recorded on 6 December at 1829 that is not on this figure. The number of earthquakes recorded at The Sisters seismograph station, located on a group of rocks less than 2 km E of the volcano, were 10-20 times more numerous than those recorded at the Mount St. Catherine station. Courtesy of SRU.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 2. Map of the monitoring system at and in the vicinity of Kick-'em-Jenny. The system was significantly upgraded during 2000-2001 with the addition of seismographs, tide gauges, hydrophones, and tiltmeters in Northern Granada and The Grenadines. Courtesy of SRU.

Magnitudes of the larger earthquakes increased throughout 4 December; during 0600-0700 the largest earthquake was M 2, during 0800-0900 it was M 2.4, by 1400-1500 it was M 2.7, and the maximum magnitude earthquake recorded that day, M 3, occurred around 1600. Due to the increase in seismicity, at 1830 on 4 December the Alert Level was raised from Yellow to Orange ("Highly elevated level of seismic and/or fumarolic activity or other unusual activity. Eruption may begin with less than 24 hours notice."). This level of alert meant that ships were not permitted to enter either of two concentric exclusion zones; the first zone was 1.5 km in radius around the volcano and the second was 5 km in radius.

The first clear sign of an eruption at Kick-'em-Jenny occurred on 4 December at 1918 when seismometers recorded T-phase signals (acoustic waves generated from an earthquake or underwater explosion that travel through the ocean) (figure 1). The signals lasted about 5 minutes as registered at the Mount St. Catherine station. Another T-phase signal followed at 1926 with a lower amplitude and a shorter duration (3 minutes). Following this eruption the number of discrete earthquakes diminished dramatically; during 1919-2000 there were only eight. Forty five discrete earthquakes preceded the next T-phase signals at 2115. These T-phase signals consisted of a very low-frequency segment followed by a higher-frequency segment that lasted for 6 minutes. A similar event, but with a narrower spectral signature, occurred at 2123.

About an hour later, at 2231, the largest T-wave signal during the December episode was recorded at the Mount St. Catherine station, lasting until 2312. T-phase signals were also recorded at the station in Trinidad about 175 km to the S. While this was the largest eruption recorded during the December episode, it was small in comparison to those of March 1990 (BGVN 15:03). Following the 2231 eruption the number of discrete earthquakes was very low, and by 5 December at 0700 only 19 earthquakes occurred.

By 6 December seismicity at Kick-'em-Jenny consisted of only occasional small earthquakes. The SRU confirmed that no signs of volcanic activity were visible on the sea surface. By this time, activity seemed to have stopped, but SRU scientists maintained the Orange Alert level for another 24 hours as a precaution.

In retrospect, the premonitory earthquake swarms were more severe than any previously recorded at Kick-'em-Jenny, but the size of the eruption as interpreted from the intensity of the T-phase signals was very low. SRU's updates stated that on 6 December as of 1115, many small pleasure craft that were observed traveling directly over Kick-'em-Jenny would be in danger if a larger eruption were to occur.

The SRU determined that what was initially thought to be a fairly strong local earthquake (Mt 2.7) on 6 December at 2208 was actually the culmination of a minor swarm of 10-15 microearthquakes directly beneath the volcano. At this point the Alert Level remained at Orange because scientists believed that the eruptions on 4 December probably deposited a layer of hot rock around the summit that would continue to release heat for a long period of time. This hot water would cause the area near the volcano to be turbulent and pose a threat to ships in the vicinity. The Orange Alert Level was further extended after careful scrutiny of seismograph records on 7 December showed that a short T-phase signal was generated from Kick-'em-Jenny on 6 December at 1829. The signal was interpreted to represent a minor eruption, therefore, the Alert Level was extended until 8 December at 1000.

Following the 6 December seismicity, there was no further volcanic or seismic activity at Kick-'em-Jenny. After consultation with the government of Grenada, on 8 December at 1000 the SRU reduced the Alert Level at the volcano from Orange to Yellow. The change in Alert Level included a reduction in boating restrictions to only include the first exclusion zone (1.5 km radius from the volcano).

Geologic Background. Kick 'em Jenny, an active submarine volcano 8 km off the N shore of Grenada, rises 1,300 m from the sea floor. Recent bathymetric surveys have shown evidence for a major arcuate collapse structure, which was the source of a submarine debris avalanche that traveled more than 15 km W. Bathymetry also revealed another submarine cone to the SE, Kick 'em Jack, and submarine lava domes to its S. These and subaerial tuff rings and lava flows at Ile de Caille and other nearby islands may represent a single large volcanic complex. Numerous eruptions have occurred since 1939, mostly documented by acoustic signals. Prior to the 1939 eruption, when an eruption cloud rose 275 m above the ocean and was witnessed by a large number of people in northern Grenada, there had been no written mention of the volcano. Eruptions have involved both explosive activity and the quiet extrusion of lava flows and lava domes in the summit crater; deep rumbling noises have sometimes been heard onshore. Recent eruptions have modified the morphology of the summit crater.

Information Contacts: John Shepard, Richie Robertson, Jan Lindsay, and Joan Latchman, Seismic Research Unit of the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, W.I. (URL: http://www.uwiseismic.com/).


Lokon-Empung (Indonesia) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Lokon-Empung

Indonesia

1.358°N, 124.792°E; summit elev. 1580 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


March, May, and August eruptions; plumes to 1.5 km over summit

During February through at least 2 December 2001 at Lokon-Empung, seismic activity varied, three eruptions occurred, and plumes were observed rising 25-1,500 m above the summit (table 1). The volcano was at Alert Level 3 (on a scale of 1-4) until the week of 27 February - 5 March, when it was decreased to 2, remaining there through at least 2 December.

Table 1. Summary of seismicity and character of plumes at Lokon-Empung during February to 2 December 2001. At times, seismic data were not available because of a broken seismograph. During March, there were 13 deep and 12 shallow volcanic events on the 25th; there were 6 deep and 7 shallow volcanic events on the 26th. Courtesy of VSI.

Date Deep volcanic Shallow volcanic Tectonic Tremor Plume height above summit Comment
Feb 2001 -- -- 1 (M 1) -- 50-350 m Thin-to-thick white plumes.
Mar 2001 21 19 32 5 minutes (2-16 mm amplitude) 25-1,500 m Thin white plumes; 26 March explosion yielded dark ash plume, ashfall.
Apr 2001 4 2 114 Four episodes 40-300 m Thin white plume.
May 2001 92 218 124 Discontinuous (0.5-7 mm amplitude) 50-900 m White plumes; explosion on 20 May and gray-black plume drifting N.
Jun 2001 20 20 96 Discontinuous 25-300 m White plumes.
Jul 2001 162 263 134 Discontinuous (0.5-8 mm amplitude) 25-200 m White plumes.
Aug 2001 57 261 45 Discontinuous (0.5-1 mm amplitude) 25-270 m Thin white plume; 18 August explosion with ashfall.
Sep 2001 132 112 156 Discontinuous 25-250 m Thin white plumes.
Oct 2001 48 165 82 Discontinuous 50-250 m White and gray plumes.
Nov-2 Dec 2001 184 113 67 Discontinuous 50-250 m White to gray plumes.

Immediately following the 28 January eruption (BGVN 26:01), activity decreased. An M 1 tectonic earthquake was registered the week of 20-26 February. On 26 March at 1440 an eruption sent a dark ash plume 1,500 m above the crater rim that drifted E and N. No incandescent material was observed, but 25 minutes after the explosion ash started to fall at Kinilow and Kakaskasen villages (3.5 and 4 km from the crater, respectively). Activity slowly decreased though 1510, when thick white gas emissions rose 400 m above the crater. The ashfall was 0.3-0.5 cm thick at Kinilow, 0.1-0.3 cm thick at Kakaskasen, and 1-2 cm thick around the Pasahapen River ~1 km from the crater. After the initial explosion, volcanic tremor recorded between 1442 and 1457 had a maximum amplitude of 2-16 mm.

Another eruption began at 2014 on 20 May, ejecting glowing material that rose as high as 400 m and then fell around the crater. The explosion produced a gray-black plume that rose to 900 m and drifted N. At 1510, a thick-white plume reached 400 m above the summit. Based on field observations, 1-2 mm of ash was deposited in a wide area around the volcano, including Pineleng village and the provincial capital of Manado (25 km N of the volcano). In anticipation of the eruption, the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI) coordinated with local government agencies, contacted the Sam Ratulangi and Cengkareng airports, and warned people living around the volcano.

During early July, instrumental monitoring showed increased activity, based on the high number of shallow volcanic earthquakes. During 30 July-12 August seismic activity decreased. Small explosions produced plumes that rose 25-250 m above the summit.

On 18 August at 2230 an explosion produced an ash cloud that rose ~800 m above the crater and drifted over N Manado. Based on visual observations, activity did not change significantly after the explosion, but the seismicity showed a major increase. Deep and shallow volcanic earthquakes averaged 8 events per day, higher than the normal average of about 5 events per day. During July to August, seismicity decreased to nearly normal levels.

During mid-October, seismicity increased again. On 19 October an M 1 tectonic earthquake was registered, and the number of volcanic earthquakes increased significantly, followed by an interval of high-frequency tremor. Seismicity continued to increase through mid-November, to an average of 19 events per day. During the week 12-18 November, seismicity began to decrease again but still remained higher than normal, at about 10 events per day. Seismicity continued to decrease through November, and by 2 December had returned to normal levels.

Geologic Background. The Lokong-Empung volcanic complex, rising above the plain of Tondano in North Sulawesi, includes four peaks and an active crater. Lokon, the highest peak, has a flat craterless top. The morphologically younger Empung cone 2 km NE has a 400-m-wide, 150-m-deep crater that erupted last in the 18th century. A ridge extending 3 km WNW from Lokon includes the Tatawiran and Tetempangan peaks. All eruptions since 1829 have originated from Tompaluan, a 150 x 250 m crater in the saddle between Lokon and Empung. These eruptions have primarily produced small-to-moderate ash plumes that sometimes damaged croplands and houses, but lava-dome growth and pyroclastic flows have also occurred.

Information Contacts: Dali Ahmad, Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro No.57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/).


Poas (Costa Rica) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Poas

Costa Rica

10.2°N, 84.233°W; summit elev. 2697 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Fluctuating water level in crater lake; variable fumarole activity

During July 2000 through August 2001, the level of the crater lake fluctuated ten's of centimeters. The color of the lake was generally blue, with sulfur particles floating on the surface. The crater-lake temperature varied between 24 and 35°C. Bubbling continued in the S, SW, NE, and central parts of the lake. A convection cell was observed in the central part of the lake during August-October 2000. During the reporting interval, the following areas showed movement toward the crater lake; the W wall, E, NW, and SW terrace, and NE, N, and NW sides of the pyroclastic cone.

Most fumarolic activity was concentrated in the pyroclastic cone area, with gas columns reaching heights of 300-500 m on the crater floor and blowing chiefly towards the W and SW flanks during July through May 2001. During May 2001, the points of greater gas pressure were in the N wall of the dome. During July 2001, a fumarole appeared in the NE wall with sulfur deposition.

Temperatures of fumaroles ranged between 87 and 111°C, and the typically reported-on access points were 92-94°C. During September 2000, relatively new fumaroles at the NE terrace (94°C) continued to deposit sulfurous sublimates that began accumulating during the previous month. During March 2001 fumarolic activity remained vigorous in the dome and towards the NE and E on the foot of the walls. Thermal sources of these fumaroles were 92-94°C. During May 2001, new fumaroles continued to appear on the floor and the E and NE walls, with sulfur deposition and increasing gas emissions. During May 2001, the fumarole of the N terrace had a temperature of 110°C. During June 2001, vigorous steaming from fumaroles in the area of the lake formed some plumes 100 m tall.

On 28 June, an M 4 earthquake registered by instruments in the Central Valley and Puntarenas area was centered 100 km beneath the volcano. The earthquake was attributed to regional subduction tectonics, but influenced the volcano's seismic and fumarolic activity. On 29 August an M 3 earthquake was registered at a depth of 5.5 km and located 1.7 km SW of the active crater.

The geodetic network lacked significant evidence of deformation during July-August 2000. The 35 hours of low-frequency tremor registered during March 2001 mainly occurred during 1-3 March. These medium and high frequency earthquakes continued to be associated with the appearance of new fumaroles within the main crater and the pyroclastic cone. A summary of earthquakes at Poás during July 2000 to August 2001 is shown in table 11.

Table 11. Summary of seismicity at Poás during July 2000 to August 2001. All columns represent cumulative monthly totals except for the first data column, which shows daily averages of reported low-frequency earthquakes (the predominant type registered). In cases where the seismometer failed to work for a portion of a month, the monthly sum was scaled up and presented assuming the rate of generated events remained constant. Missing months indicate that no data were available. LF indicates low-frequency earthquakes. Paired AB-type earthquakes arrived closely spaced in time. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Month Daily average LF earthquakes (1.5-2.3 Hz) AB-type (medium frequency) AB-type double events Tremor duration VT Monthly total
Jul 2000 163 77 2 32 minutes 7 5,146
Aug 2000 210 27 242 120 minutes 55 6,880
Sep 2000 300 371 21 73 minutes 20 9,427
Mar 2001 239 319 -- 35 hours 2 7,742
May 2001 277 530 13 7 hours 41 9,154
Jul 2001 230 238 -- -- -- 7,390
Aug 2001 166 128 -- -- -- 5,286

During July and August 2001 modest portions of the crater wall were unstable. During August the collapse of a portion of the E wall mobilized an unusual amount of material towards the bottom of the crater (figure 73). The collapse has been associated with the cracks and permanent fumarolic action weakening the E part of the crater.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 73. Photo of a collapsed portion of the E wall at Poás, August 2001. Lines show where the rock detached from the sub-vertical wall and where the loosened rock came to rest. The affected part of the wall was cracked and fumarolically altered. Courtesy OVSICORI-UNA.

General References. Casertano, L., Borgia, A., Cigolini, C., Morales, L.D., Montero, W., Gómez, M., and Fernández, J.F., 1985, Investigaciones geofísicas y caracteristicas geoquímicas de las aguas hidrotermales: Volcán Poás, Costa Rica: Geofísica Internacional, v. 24, p. 315-332.

Prosser, J., 1985, Geology and medium-term temporal magmatic variation found at the summit region of Poás volcano, Costa Rica: Boletín de Vulcanología, n. 15, p. 21-39.

Geologic Background. The broad vegetated edifice of Poás, one of the most active volcanoes of Costa Rica, contains three craters along a N-S line. The frequently visited multi-hued summit crater lakes of the basaltic-to-dacitic volcano are easily accessible by vehicle from the nearby capital city of San José. A N-S-trending fissure cutting the complex stratovolcano extends to the lower N flank, where it has produced the Congo stratovolcano and several lake-filled maars. The southernmost of the two summit crater lakes, Botos, last erupted about 7,500 years ago. The more prominent geothermally heated northern lake, Laguna Caliente, is one of the world's most acidic natural lakes, with a pH of near zero. It has been the site of frequent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions since an eruption was reported in 1828. Eruptions often include geyser-like ejections of crater-lake water.

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.


Rincon de la Vieja (Costa Rica) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Rincon de la Vieja

Costa Rica

10.83°N, 85.324°W; summit elev. 1916 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Fumarolically active through August 2001

During March 2000 through at least August 2001, fumarolic and seismic activity continued at Rincón de la Vieja. Fumarolic gases often irritated the eyes, skin, and throat.

On 1 March 2000 the crater lake was blue, with sulfur particles in suspension, a constant surge, and a temperature of 37°C. Compared to a visit in September 1999, the level of the lake was higher and the bubbling in the SW part had ended. The fumaroles on the NE (91°C) and SW walls were no longer steaming. The fumaroles on the NE flank (89°C) were steaming slightly. The edge of the crater displayed concentric 50-m-long and 40-cm-wide cracks.

During October 2000, the lake was gray with a high water level, sulfur particles floating on the surface, evaporation, and a temperature of 44°C. Fumarolic activity was observed in the SW and N wall of the main crater. The fumarolic area of the N flank (60°C) was steaming slightly, and sublimate deposition occurred.

During July 2001, OVSICORI-UNA reported that the level of the lake had descended ~2 m since mid-March. The lake was gray in color with sulfur particles floating on the surface; vigorous evaporation made observation of its bottom difficult, and its temperature stood at 58°C. In the SW wall there were small areas sliding towards the lake, and a new noisy fumarole appeared on the S wall. The fumaroles on the NE and SW walls remained active, producing gas columns that reached up to 300 m. The columns, often visible from the N and NW flanks, were blown by predominant winds towards the W and SW flanks. Low-frequency events and microearthquakes increased during June and August 2001. A summary of earthquakes at Rincón de la Vieja appears in table 4.

Table 4. Summary of earthquakes at Rincón de la Vieja during May 2000 to August 2001, registered by a seismograph at a station located 5 km SW of the main crater. The reported earthquakes include microseisms with amplitudes under 5 mm. The reported tremor durations were sums of discontinuous segments and were of low frequency (below 2 Hz). Missing months indicate that no data were available at the time of report preparation. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Month LF HF Micro-earthquakes Tremor duration VT Total
May 2000 3 1 25 105 minutes -- 29
Aug 2000 8 -- 21 30 minutes -- 29
Sep 2000 7 -- -- 210 minutes 11 18
Mar 2001 2 -- 5 -- -- 7
May 2001 5 -- 2 -- -- 7
Jun 2001 12 -- 20 -- 1 33
Aug 2001 35 -- 50 -- -- 85

General References. Barquero, J., and others, 1978-1986, Estado de los Volcanes de Costa Rica (15 annual or semi-annual reports): Boletín de Vulcanología, nos. 2-13 and 15-17.

Garcia, M.O., and Malavassi, E. (eds.), 1983, Memoir, USA-Costa Rica Joint Seminar in Volcanology, San José, January 1982: Universidad Nacional, Heredia, 155 p. (18 papers).

Geologic Background. Rincón de la Vieja, the largest volcano in NW Costa Rica, is a remote volcanic complex in the Guanacaste Range. The volcano consists of an elongated, arcuate NW-SE-trending ridge constructed within the 15-km-wide early Pleistocene Guachipelín caldera, whose rim is exposed on the south side. Sometimes known as the "Colossus of Guanacaste," it has an estimated volume of 130 km3 and contains at least nine major eruptive centers. Activity has migrated to the SE, where the youngest-looking craters are located. The twin cone of Santa María volcano, the highest peak of the complex, is located at the eastern end of a smaller, 5-km-wide caldera and has a 500-m-wide crater. A Plinian eruption producing the 0.25 km3 Río Blanca tephra about 3,500 years ago was the last major magmatic eruption. All subsequent eruptions, including numerous historical eruptions possibly dating back to the 16th century, have been from the prominent active crater containing a 500-m-wide acid lake located ENE of Von Seebach crater.

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.


San Cristobal (Nicaragua) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

San Cristobal

Nicaragua

12.702°N, 87.004°W; summit elev. 1745 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Minor ash eruptions during May-November 2001; elevated seismicity

Ash fell at San Cristóbal during May and June 2000. Relative calm prevailed after then until May 2001, when activity began to increase. Thousands of earthquakes per month occurred during June through at least October 2001. Explosive eruptions in mid-August produced columns that reached 400 m.

Seismic signals registered on 2, 4, and 7 May 2001 indicated that small explosions had probably occurred. At 0900 on 11 May, seismic tremor increased to a level exceeding that observed during the eruption in December 1999 and the early months of 2000 (BGVN 25:02). The volcano emitted ash and gas beginning on 12 May. A total of 2,748 seismic events were registered during the month. No dominant frequency was observed during the beginning of the month, but during the rest of the month dominant frequencies of up to 6.7 Hz were noted. Pulses of gas-and-ash emissions were seen rising up to 100 m above the crater rim, and light ash fell in the town of Santa Barbara, 14 km SW of the volcano. The volcano was relatively calm at the end of May.

During June there were three periods of increased seismicity, rapid degassing, and release of gas and ash. The total of 2,276 earthquakes during the month were mostly associated with degassing. On 7 June at 0240, seismic tremor increased, and minutes later dark clouds were observed. At 0500, gray ashfall was reported 10 km SW of the volcano. Activity decreased beginning 9 June until 16 June, when high-energy seismic activity and ash emissions increased for about five hours. The dominant frequency of the 16 June earthquakes ranged between 10 and 12 Hz. On 20 June at 1048 tremor increased again and ashfall began one hour later. A vibration was felt, and noise was heard as far as 6 km from the volcano. The activity ceased five hours later.

According to news reports, on 21 June an explosion sent an ash cloud to a height of 800 m that extended ~25 km downwind and caused ashfall in the town of Chinandega, ~15 km SW. The same day, Jorge Cruz of Indiana Carcache and Martha Navarro of INETER visited the volcano and observed abundant gas-and-ash emissions. Gas sampled on 22 June contained 2.6 mg/m3 of SO2 and 250 ppm CO2. The low concentrations suggest weakened gas pressure and no new magmatic material.

During July 2001, San Cristóbal displayed reduced seismic tremor, but the number of volcanic earthquakes was high. More than 6,111 seismic events were registered, including long-period (LP) earthquakes and signals of small gas explosions. LP earthquakes are common at active volcanoes, and have been observed at other Nicaraguan volcanoes just before eruptions. This was the first time this type of signal had been observed at San Cristóbal, so it was not clear if they had occurred prior to or during past explosions. According to Chouet (1996), LP earthquakes are generated by resonance in fractures closed at their ends and filled with volcanic fluids (water or magma) with a certain dissolved gas level, in which an abrupt pressure change takes place. On 22 July at 0134, an LP earthquake was registered that lasted ~17 seconds with a dominant frequency of 1.2 Hz. Three seismic stations recorded the earthquakes, the most distant located ~15 km W of the volcano. In addition to these seismic data, Vicente Perez ascended the volcano during July and heard both landslides moving down the crater's walls and several rumblings.

During August 2001 tremor remained low to moderate and 4,552 earthquakes were registered. The number of earthquakes was high (averaging ~300 events per day) during 1-4 August, but began dropping gradually on 5 August. The dominant frequency of LP events was ~1 Hz. On 8 August tremor began to increase but the number of earthquakes decreased compared to the previous days. On 10 August, 9 seismic events were registered and tremor increased. On 11 August tremor stood at 30-40 RSAM units. Most of the earthquakes had dominant frequencies of 1-7 Hz. On 12 August, tremor increased again until it reached 80 RSAM units. The increase in tremor lasted until the evening of 13 August when it lowered to 30 RSAM units. During 14-15 August tremor increased again, reaching 90 RSAM units. On 14 August incandescence was visible in the crater for the first time during the current episode. INETER stated that gas and clouds above the summit crater were illuminated from below.

On 15 August beginning at 1620 a dense cloud was formed from continuous abundant out-gassing. Rumbling, incandescence, and explosions were observed during 15-17 August. On 16 August, Vicente Perez ascended the volcano to make observations and found an increase in fumarole temperatures. During 0900 through 1030, gas explosions occurred with columns that reached 400 m. Seismic tremor gradually decreased until approximately 1400 on 17 August when strong seismic activity began again. Fumarolic activity increased and small lagoons within the crater had dried. On 18 August tremor lowered to normal levels of 20 units RSAM. The absence of earthquakes and LP events was noted during this time. The dominant frequency of most of the tremor was 1.0-6.0 Hz. Ash explosions were observed until the afternoon of 19 August.

Based on the recent activity at San Cristóbal, INETER believes that magma rose slowly in the volcano's open conduit and remained close to the crater's floor, which allowed the incandescence observed at night. This was consistent with the observed increase in fumarole temperatures.

During September, seismic activity continued, along with degassing and noise in the interior of the crater. A total of 4,695 earthquakes were registered during the month. After the eruptive activity that occurred during August, San Cristóbal maintained a low level of tremor (less than 20 RSAM units). Tremor increased on 7 September, accompanied by earthquakes with dominant frequencies of 2-6 Hz that occurred every minute for 24 hours. Few LP events were registered. On 8 September, Perez again ascended the volcano and found a slight increase in the temperatures of most of the fumaroles. Abundant degassing took place during the month and noises were heard in the interior of the crater. During 17-19 September tremor increased again, and was accompanied by earthquakes that occurred in bands of time that lasted, on average, one hour. During the last week of September, another increase in tremor took place, as well as an increase in the number of earthquakes. On this occasion, tremor lasted several days and was accompanied by earthquakes approximately every hour.

During October 2001, seismic tremor remained at 20-40 RSAM units. The dominant frequency of tremor was 4-6 Hz. A total of 7,421 earthquakes were registered during the month. Most of the earthquakes had dominant frequencies of from 5 to over 10 Hz. Few events registered dominant frequencies less than 1 Hz. Despite the increase in earthquakes since June 2001, little eruptive activity has taken place (small ash explosions and gas emanations). During the month San Cristóbal displayed emanations of gas, ash, and noise in the interior of the crater. On the night of 3 October, Perez reported ashfall on surrounding communities. On 7 October, Perez ascended the volcano and reported that a collapse had occurred in the S part of the crater.

INETER reported that during the evening of 12 November small ash emissions at San Cristóbal produced ash clouds that remained around summit level. According to the Washington VAAC, on 12 November at 1645 GOES-8 imagery showed a small area of possible ash drifting NW. Ground observers noted moderate volcanic activity until 1800. Ash had dissipated by 2100 and the next day there were no ground reports of volcanic activity.

General Reference. Chouet, B.A., 1996, Volcano long-period seismicity: its source and uses in eruption forecasting: Nature v. 380, p. 309-316.

Geologic Background. The San Cristóbal volcanic complex, consisting of five principal volcanic edifices, forms the NW end of the Marrabios Range. The symmetrical 1745-m-high youngest cone, named San Cristóbal (also known as El Viejo), is Nicaragua's highest volcano and is capped by a 500 x 600 m wide crater. El Chonco, with several flank lava domes, is located 4 km W of San Cristóbal; it and the eroded Moyotepe volcano, 4 km NE of San Cristóbal, are of Pleistocene age. Volcán Casita, containing an elongated summit crater, lies immediately east of San Cristóbal and was the site of a catastrophic landslide and lahar in 1998. The Plio-Pleistocene La Pelona caldera is located at the eastern end of the complex. Historical eruptions from San Cristóbal, consisting of small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been reported since the 16th century. Some other 16th-century eruptions attributed to Casita volcano are uncertain and may pertain to other Marrabios Range volcanoes.

Information Contacts: Virginia Tenorio, Department of Geophysics, Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), P.O. Box 1761, Managua, Nicaragua (URL: http://www.ineter.gob.ni/); La Noticia (URL: http://www.lanoticia.com.ni/); El Nuevo Diario (URL: http://www.elnuevodiario.com.ni/); La Prensa (URL: http://www.laprensa.com.ni/); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch, NOAA/NESDIS/E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/).


Turrialba (Costa Rica) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Turrialba

Costa Rica

10.025°N, 83.767°W; summit elev. 3340 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Seismic and fumarolic activity during January 2000-August 2001

During January 2000 to at least August 2001, seismic and fumarolic activity continued at Turrialba (table 5). On 12 March 2000 an M 3.2 earthquake was registered at a depth of 7 km, 6.5 km E of the active crater. The EDM lines (radial lines of distances) as well as the dry clinometers did not show significant changes during 2000.

Table 5. Summary of earthquakes and fumarolic temperatures at Turrialba during January 2000 to August 2001, registered by a seismograph at station VTU, located ~0.5 km SE of the active crater. Microearthquakes were defined as earthquakes registered on the local seismic system with amplitudes under 15 mm. Missing months indicate that no data was available for that month. NR indicates information not reported. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Month AB earthquakes LF earthquakes Micro-earthquakes Total earthquakes Maximum fumarolic temperature (°C) Comment
Jan 2000 29 2 33 64 NR Seismicity registered only 13 days.
Feb 2000 91 -- 75 166 NR Seismicity registered only 16 days.
Mar 2000 44 -- 65 113 91 --
Apr 2000 NR NR NR NR 90 --
May 2000 286 5 330 616 NR --
Jul 2000 50 -- 104 167 90 --
Aug 2000 76 -- 148 229 89 --
Sep 2000 243 -- 244 493 89 --
Oct 2000 NR NR NR NR 93 --
Mar 2001 399 948 718 2075 NR --
May 2001 128 -- 334 464 92 An average of 15 earthquakes per day.
Jun 2001 3 -- 185 194 92 Six VT earthquakes.
Jul 2001 24 -- 310 334 91 --
Aug 2001 14 -- 261 275 90 --

Fumarolic activity was persistent in the N, NW, NE, and E walls of the main crater. Fumarolic activity in the S and SW walls diminished by July 2000 and began to reappear during October 2000. Activity in the N wall during May 2001 was more vigorous than previously. Small landslides persisted in the walls of the main crater, covering some fumaroles at the bottom and revealing other new ones.

During March 2001 sulfur precipitation and gaseous emanations in the internal walls occurred throughout most of the central craters. Gaseous activity also persisted in the W crater walls. During June 2001, a small patch of vegetation at the center of the main crater showed partial burns due to the gas escaping in the NE part of the main crater.

Geologic Background. Turrialba, the easternmost of Costa Rica's Holocene volcanoes, is a large vegetated basaltic-to-dacitic stratovolcano located across a broad saddle NE of Irazú volcano overlooking the city of Cartago. The massive edifice covers an area of 500 km2. Three well-defined craters occur at the upper SW end of a broad 800 x 2200 m summit depression that is breached to the NE. Most activity originated from the summit vent complex, but two pyroclastic cones are located on the SW flank. Five major explosive eruptions have occurred during the past 3500 years. A series of explosive eruptions during the 19th century were sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows. Fumarolic activity continues at the central and SW summit craters.

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica.


Unnamed (Tonga) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Unnamed

Tonga

18.325°S, 174.365°W; summit elev. -40 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Possible source for September T-waves and November pumice rafts

[The following originally appeared as part of a report on Fonualei. Later investigations showed that the seismicity and pumice rafts in question most likely came from an unnamed submarine volcano in the Tonga Islands.]

Seismicity. During 28-29 September 2001 numerous short T-waves were registered by the French Polynesian Seismic Network. The preliminary location of the seismicity was determined to be near the Tonga archipelago at 18.18°S (well constrained) and 174°W (not as well constrained). This spot lies ~40 km W of Fonualei.

The swarm began at 0550 on 28 September and ended at 1113 on 29 September (figure 1). The strongest T-wave was registered at 1229 on 28 September at the PAE seismic station in Tahiti (figure 2). The hydro-acoustic activity was interpreted to be volcanic and explosive and not related to seismicity at the Tonga trench. According to the Laboratoire de Géophysique, the source could be near Fonualei.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 1. A plot showing the overall character of the T-wave swarm inferred to have come from Fonualei during 28-29 September 2001. Basically, the cluster of T waves seen in the main part of the swarm (28 September) consisted of signals with short (15-second) periods. Some of these signals were comparatively strong. T waves seen later in the swarm (1100 on 29 September) had long (120-second) period. Courtesy of Laboratoire de Géophysique.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 2. Seismic trace of the strongest of the T-wave signals attributed to Fonualei during the swarm of 28-29 September 2001. The trace was recorded at 1229 on 28 September at the PAE seismic station in Tahiti (the trace was labeled "PAE CPZ1 (Brut)"). Courtesy of Laboratoire de Géophysique.

Pumice rafts. Roman Leslie, a Ph.D. student at the University of Tasmania visited Fiji (hundreds of kilometers W of Tonga) during 9-25 November 2001. There he observed large (100-m diameter) pumice rafts of gray, aphyric pumice clasts ranging from sand-sized to ~20 cm in diameter. Local residents hadn't seen such large rafts before, but had noticed occasional clasts in recent history.

Leslie initially observed the pumice rafts while on Kadavu island of the Lomaiviti Group while diving on the southern Astrolabe Reef from the 10th-15th. He again saw pumice rafts in the Koro Sea during a flight from Suva to Koro on the 16th. Next, he found them on the coral coast (southern Viti Levu) on the 24th, where samples were collected ~5 km E of Sigatoka.

There he collected pumice samples from the beach at or near the high-tide mark, where they formed discontinuous wave-derived lag deposits of limited thickness, with ~5 m lateral extent. Beach pumice deposits and floating rafts (up to ~150 m in length) were poorly sorted and consisted of brown-grey clasts ranging from ~2 to 100 mm in diameter. Clasts were sub-angular to sub-rounded and appeared to contain small phenocrysts of clinopyroxene and plagioclase. Judging from the approximate color index and mineralogy it seemed that the samples were broadly andesitic.

Whether or not the pumice rafts seen in Fiji during November are related to the activity that registered as T-waves from Tonga during late September is uncertain. The rafts and T-waves may be entirely unrelated in terms of source location, or they may result from a common eruption, perhaps at Fonualei.

Geologic Background. A submarine volcano along the Tofua volcanic arc ~45 km NW of Vava'u Island was first observed in September 2001, ~35 km S of Fonualei and 60 km NE of Late volcano. The site of the eruption is at an approximate bathymetric depth of 300 m. T-phase waves were recorded on 27-28 September 2001, and on the 27th local fishermen observed an ash-rich eruption column that rose above the ocean surface. No eruptive activity was reported after the 28th, but water discoloration was documented the following month. In early November rafts and strandings of dacitic pumice were reported along the coasts of Kadavu and Viti Levu in Fiji. The depth of the summit of the submarine cone following the eruption was determined to be 40 m during a 2007 survey; the crater of the 2001 eruption was open to the E.

Information Contacts: Olivier Hyvernaud; Laboratoire de Géophysique; PO Box 640 Papeete; Tahiti; French Polynesia; Roman Leslie, Centre for Ore Deposit Research, University of Tasmania, GPO Box 252-79, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia (URL: http://www.utas.edu.au/codes/).


Yasur (Vanuatu) — November 2001 Citation iconCite this Report

Yasur

Vanuatu

19.532°S, 169.447°E; summit elev. 361 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Still erupting despite 10-fold tremor decrease beginning November 1999

Since the end of Yasur's recent very active period during June-November 1999 (BGVN 24:07), volcanic tremor underwent an abrupt drop (figure 23). IRD seismologists define tremor amplitudes at "level 3" for signals 12-60 um and "level 4" for signals over 60 um. As figure 23 shows, the number of tremors at level 3 recorded between January 2000 and November 2001 was ten-times lower than that recorded each year between 1995 and 1998. In that same 22-month period, only a few dozen seismic events of over 60 µm amplitude were recorded (BGVN 24:04).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 23. Tremor recorded at Yasur during late January 1993 through November 2001. Bars relate to the left-hand scale and show the yearly number of level 3 events (amplitudes of 12-60 µm). Points connected by lines relate to the right-hand scale and show the yearly number of level 4 events (amplitudes over 60 µm). Asterisks indicate years with incomplete data, as follows: (a) for 1993, only level 3 data were available for the entire year; and (b) the 2001 data shown only extends through 1 November 2001. Courtesy Michel Lardy, Janette Tabbagh, Douglas Charley, and Sandrine Wallez.

The eruptive activity observed at vent A, in the southern part of the crater (figures 24, 25, and 26), shifted following a violent event that affected the northern part of the crater at areas B and C in October 1999. Since this event, the explosive activity has remained mild, and limited to vent C, the northernmost vent of the crater.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 24. A view of the crater of Yasur on 2 October 1999, taken facing N while on the southern edge. Copyrighted photo courtesy of Michel Lardy, IRD.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 25. A view of the crater of Yasur on 9 September 2001, taken facing N while on the southern edge. Copyrighted photo courtesy of Michel Lardy, IRD.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 26. A September 2001 visit to Yasur's summit craters with GPS and laser telemetry resulted in this sketch map and N-S cross section. Courtesy of Douglas Charley and Sandrine Wallez (Vanuatu Department of Geology, Mines and Water Resources), and Michel Lardy (IRD).

A comparison of photographs taken from the southern crater rim in October 1999 (figure 24) and in September 2001 (figure 25) revealed no profound difference in crater morphology. However, during September 2001 vents A and B were plugged and only vent C was active, with ejecta being sent 170 m above the bottom of the crater.

During September 2001, Douglas Charley, Michel Lardy, and Sandrine Wallez undertook a detailed survey of the craters. They used GPS positioning and laser telemetry to produce a map and cross-section showing crater topography and nomenclature (figure 26).

Observations on 12 October 2000. Jeff and Raine Williams, sailing aboard the S/Y Gryphon, visited Yasur on 12 October 2000. From ~8 km away a thick plume of steam and smoke could be seen rising from the peak. The route carried the visitors close to the base of the volcano and across the ash plain that stretches for nearly 1.5 km in each direction from the N flank of the mountain. A narrow stream cuts through the plain at its lowest point, and until recently a freshwater lake had filled the lower basin. Heavy rains earlier in the year resulted in the destruction of the lake's natural dam and left eroded ravines. Their guide drove up through the jungle to the steepest part of the unvegetated cinder cone. From there they hiked ~400 m to the crater rim, a ridge with a sheer 90-120 m drop to the crater floor. Only one of the crater pits was active, producing a constant pillar of steam and smoke. Occasionally the wind would blow strong enough to clear the crater floor, allowing views of the lava glow. Every five or ten minutes the volcano would "cough" or "bark" while throwing red-hot cinders hundreds of feet in the air, tracing red arcs back to the sides of the crater where they glowed for several more minutes. One explosion sent ejecta as high as the rim, but away from the observers. As night fell, red light from the crater was illuminating the pit and the rising steam.

Geologic Background. Yasur has exhibited essentially continuous Strombolian and Vulcanian activity at least since Captain Cook observed ash eruptions in 1774. This style of activity may have continued for the past 800 years. Located at the SE tip of Tanna Island in Vanuatu, this pyroclastic cone has a nearly circular, 400-m-wide summit crater. The active cone is largely contained within the small Yenkahe caldera, and is the youngest of a group of Holocene volcanic centers constructed over the down-dropped NE flank of the Pleistocene Tukosmeru volcano. The Yenkahe horst is located within the Siwi ring fracture, a 4-km-wide open feature associated with eruption of the andesitic Siwi pyroclastic sequence. Active tectonism along the Yenkahe horst accompanying eruptions has raised Port Resolution harbor more than 20 m during the past century.

Information Contacts: Janette Tabbagh, Université Paris VI, UMR 7619, Coordination des recherches Volcanologiques (CRV), 4 Place Jussieu, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France; Michel Lardy, Institut de Recherche pour le développement (IRD), CRV, BP A 5 Nouméa, Nouvelle Calédonie; Sandrine Wallez and Douglas Charley, Department of Geology, Mines and Water Resources, PMB 01, Port-Vila, Vanuatu; Jeff and Raine Williams, P.O. Box 729, Funkstown, MD 21734, USA.

Atmospheric Effects

The enormous aerosol cloud from the March-April 1982 eruption of Mexico's El Chichón persisted for years in the stratosphere, and led to the Atmospheric Effects section becoming a regular feature of the Bulletin. Descriptions of the initial dispersal of major eruption clouds remain with the individual eruption reports, but observations of long-term stratospheric aerosol loading will be found in this section.

Atmospheric Effects (1980-1989)  Atmospheric Effects (1995-2001)

Special Announcements

Special announcements of various kinds and obituaries.

Special Announcements  Obituaries

Misc Reports

Reports are sometimes published that are not related to a Holocene volcano. These might include observations of a Pleistocene volcano, earthquake swarms, or floating pumice. Reports are also sometimes published in which the source of the activity is unknown or the report is determined to be false. All of these types of additional reports are listed below by subject.

Additional Reports  False Reports