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Bristol Island

Photo of this volcano
  • Country
  • Primary Volcano Type
  • Last Known Eruption
  •  
  • 59.017°S
  • 26.533°W

  • 1100 m
    3609 ft

  • 390080
  • Latitude
  • Longitude

  • Summit
    Elevation

  • Volcano
    Number
Most Recent Weekly Report: 13 July-19 July 2016 Citation IconCite this Report

The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that on 19 July a diffuse ash plume from Bristol Island's Mt. Sourabaya was visible in satellite images drifting 30 km NE. A persistent thermal anomaly was also identified in satellite data.

Source: Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)


Most Recent Bulletin Report: September 2017 (BGVN 42:09) Citation IconCite this Report

First eruption since 1956; lava flows and ash plumes, April-July 2016

Bristol Island, near the southern end of the seven South Sandwich Islands in the isolated Southern Atlantic Ocean, lies 800 km SE of South Georgia Island at latitude 59° S. Historic eruptions occurred on Bristol Island in 1823, the 1930s, and the 1950s. A new eruption was reported from Mount Sourabaya, a cone near the center of the island, beginning at the end of April 2016. It produced ash plumes and strong thermal anomalies most likely generated by lava flows until the end of July 2016. Information about Bristol Island comes from NASA Earth Observatory and other satellite imagery data, and the Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC).

Evidence for a new eruption at Bristol Island first appeared in Landsat 8 imagery on 24 April 2016 as a large steam plume and a thermal anomaly at the summit (figure 1). Another image on 1 May showed the still-active plume and an elongation of the thermal anomaly to the W, suggesting that lava may have breached the crater rim. Two MODVOLC thermal alerts also appeared on 24 April; their frequency and intensity increased significantly in subsequent days.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 1. The Operational Land Imager (OLI) on the Landsat 8 satellite acquired these two false-color images on 24 April (upper) and 1 May (lower) 2016 of an eruption at Mount Sourabaya, a stratovolcano on Bristol Island. The images were built from a combination of shortwave-infrared, near-infrared, and red light (Landsat bands 6-5-4) that helps detect the heat signature of an eruption. Both images show what could be lava (red-orange), while white plumes of steam trail away from the crater. In the lower (1 May) image, the thermal anomaly extends farther to the W, suggesting a lava flow. The band combination makes the ice cover of the island appear bright blue-green. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

The number of daily MODVOLC thermal alerts increased during May 2016 to as many as 35 on 26 May. On many days, more than 10 thermal alerts were issued. The distribution of the alert pixels suggested that an E-W linear feature such as one or more lava flows was responsible for many of the thermal anomalies (figure 2).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 2. MODVOLC thermal alerts for Bristol Island during selected dates in late April and May 2016. Top left: Nine thermal alerts issued during 25-30 April form two linear features trending WNW and WSW. Top right: 59 alerts issued during 11-15 May suggest intensification of heat flow. Lower left: 35 alerts on 26 May are scattered over a wide area. Lower right: 20 alerts issued on 29 May are concentrated in an E-W trending distribution, suggesting one or more flows of some kind as the heat source. Courtesy of HIGP MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.

A Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite image of Bristol Island acquired on 28 May 2016 showed an ash plume from Mt. Sourabaya drifting NE (figure 3). The Buenos Aires VAAC issued the first reports of gas and possible ash plumes on 29 May 2016, noting that they drifted as far as 185 km N, NNE, and SE at an altitude of approximately 1.5 km.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 3. On 28 May 2016, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instrument on NASA's Terra satellite acquired this natural-color image of an ash plume streaming NE from Bristol Island. The plume casts a shadow on the sea ice below. Most of the white in the image is likely ice, rather than clouds. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

The Buenos Aires VAAC issued multiple daily ash advisories during 29 May-7 June 2016. They noted that weather clouds mostly prevented satellite observations of Mount Sourabaya during 1-6 June, though a thermal anomaly was detected during 1-2 and 5-7 June. Satellite images from Suomi NPP/VIIRS often showed possible ash plumes mixed with clouds, but revealed distinct plumes on 2 and 4 June (figure 4) drifting E, and on 7 June towards the NE. On 16 June, a diffuse plume of volcanic ash was reported by the Buenos Aires VAAC moving SE at about 1.5 km altitude. MODVOLC thermal alerts continued even more strongly in June than during May. On almost every day, more than ten alerts were recorded, and they continued with a broad E-W distribution similar to that seen during May.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 4. An ash plume can be seen drifting E on 4 June 2016 from Bristol Island in this Suomi NPP/VIIRS image (Corrected Reflectance – True Color). Courtesy of NASA Worldview.

On 16 and 18 July, ash seen in Suomi NPP/VIIRS imagers appeared to be drifting NE, and on 19 July a faint thin ash plume was identified drifting 100 km NE; the persistent thermal anomaly continued to be visible. No further VAAC reports were issued after 21 July. Numerous MODVOLC thermal alerts continued during most days of July, until they stopped abruptly after the 17 alerts issued on 26 July (figure 5). The MIROVA thermal anomaly system captured a strong signal from Bristol Island between late April and late July 2016 (figure 6).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 5. MODVOLC thermal alerts during July 2016 suggest multiple origin points for the substantial thermal anomalies. Top left: the distribution of the 23 alerts issued on 3 July suggests multiple origin points. Top right: two distinct sources are apparent from the 15 alerts issued on 7 July. Lower left: the 30 alerts issued on 13 July are spread over a large E-W area and reflect multiple source points. Lower right: the 17 Alerts on 26 July show NE-SW trending elongate zones of thermal anomalies. Courtesy of HIGP MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 6. A strong thermal anomaly signal is apparent at Bristol Island during April-July 2016 in the MIROVA thermal anomaly data. Both blue and black lines signify eruptive activity. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Two satellite images, from 21 August and 22 September 2016, confirm the presence of new lava fields around the summit of Mount Sourabaya that were created during the April-July 2016 eruption (figure 7).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 7. Satellite imagery of Mount Sourabaya on Bristol Island on 21 August and 22 September 2016 after the eruptive episode of April-July shows evidence of lava flows onto ice and snow surrounding the summit. The upper image is from the Landsat Viewer/EOS Data Analytics annotated by the South Sandwich Islands blog; the lower image is a Landsat 8 image annotated by Cultur Volcan.

Information Contacts: NASA Earth Observatory, EOS Project Science Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/); NASA Worldview (URL: https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php?lang=es); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); South Sandwich Islands Volcano Monitoring Blog (URL: http://southsandwichmonitoring.blogspot.com/); Cultur Volcan, Journal d'un volcanophile (URL: https://laculturevolcan.blogspot.com/).

Weekly Reports - Index


2016: May | June | July


13 July-19 July 2016 Citation IconCite this Report

The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that on 19 July a diffuse ash plume from Bristol Island's Mt. Sourabaya was visible in satellite images drifting 30 km NE. A persistent thermal anomaly was also identified in satellite data.

Source: Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)


15 June-21 June 2016 Citation IconCite this Report

The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that on 16 June a diffuse ash plume from Bristol Island's Mt. Sourabaya was visible in satellite images rising to an altitude of 1.5 km (5,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifting SE. The report noted low confidence in the plume altitude due to weather clouds in the area.

Source: Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)


1 June-7 June 2016 Citation IconCite this Report

The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that weather clouds mostly prevented satellite observations of Bristol Island's Mt. Sourabaya during 1-6 June, though a thermal anomaly was detected during 1-2 and 5-6 June.

Source: Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)


25 May-31 May 2016 Citation IconCite this Report

According to NASA's Earth Observatory, a Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite image of Bristol Island acquired on 28 May showed an ash plume from Mt. Sourabaya drifting NE. Based on satellite image analysis, the Buenos Aires VAAC reported that during 29-31 May gas plumes with possible minor ash content drifted as far as 185 km N, NNE, and SE at an altitude of 1.5 km (5,000 ft) a.s.l.

Sources: NASA Earth Observatory; Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)


4 May-10 May 2016 Citation IconCite this Report

Based on analysis of satellite images, an eruption at Bristol Island likely began on 24 April, the first eruption since 1956. Landsat images detected a plume and a thermal anomaly in the main crater at the top of Mt. Sourabaya. By 1 May the anomaly was elongated to the W, suggesting that lava had breached the crater rim.

Source: Matthew Patrick, US Geological Survey - Hawaiian Volcano Observatory


Bulletin Reports - Index

Reports are organized chronologically and indexed below by Month/Year (Publication Volume:Number), and include a one-line summary. Click on the index link or scroll down to read the reports.

09/2017 (BGVN 42:09) First eruption since 1956; lava flows and ash plumes, April-July 2016




Information is preliminary and subject to change. All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


September 2017 (BGVN 42:09) Citation IconCite this Report

First eruption since 1956; lava flows and ash plumes, April-July 2016

Bristol Island, near the southern end of the seven South Sandwich Islands in the isolated Southern Atlantic Ocean, lies 800 km SE of South Georgia Island at latitude 59° S. Historic eruptions occurred on Bristol Island in 1823, the 1930s, and the 1950s. A new eruption was reported from Mount Sourabaya, a cone near the center of the island, beginning at the end of April 2016. It produced ash plumes and strong thermal anomalies most likely generated by lava flows until the end of July 2016. Information about Bristol Island comes from NASA Earth Observatory and other satellite imagery data, and the Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC).

Evidence for a new eruption at Bristol Island first appeared in Landsat 8 imagery on 24 April 2016 as a large steam plume and a thermal anomaly at the summit (figure 1). Another image on 1 May showed the still-active plume and an elongation of the thermal anomaly to the W, suggesting that lava may have breached the crater rim. Two MODVOLC thermal alerts also appeared on 24 April; their frequency and intensity increased significantly in subsequent days.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 1. The Operational Land Imager (OLI) on the Landsat 8 satellite acquired these two false-color images on 24 April (upper) and 1 May (lower) 2016 of an eruption at Mount Sourabaya, a stratovolcano on Bristol Island. The images were built from a combination of shortwave-infrared, near-infrared, and red light (Landsat bands 6-5-4) that helps detect the heat signature of an eruption. Both images show what could be lava (red-orange), while white plumes of steam trail away from the crater. In the lower (1 May) image, the thermal anomaly extends farther to the W, suggesting a lava flow. The band combination makes the ice cover of the island appear bright blue-green. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

The number of daily MODVOLC thermal alerts increased during May 2016 to as many as 35 on 26 May. On many days, more than 10 thermal alerts were issued. The distribution of the alert pixels suggested that an E-W linear feature such as one or more lava flows was responsible for many of the thermal anomalies (figure 2).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 2. MODVOLC thermal alerts for Bristol Island during selected dates in late April and May 2016. Top left: Nine thermal alerts issued during 25-30 April form two linear features trending WNW and WSW. Top right: 59 alerts issued during 11-15 May suggest intensification of heat flow. Lower left: 35 alerts on 26 May are scattered over a wide area. Lower right: 20 alerts issued on 29 May are concentrated in an E-W trending distribution, suggesting one or more flows of some kind as the heat source. Courtesy of HIGP MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.

A Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite image of Bristol Island acquired on 28 May 2016 showed an ash plume from Mt. Sourabaya drifting NE (figure 3). The Buenos Aires VAAC issued the first reports of gas and possible ash plumes on 29 May 2016, noting that they drifted as far as 185 km N, NNE, and SE at an altitude of approximately 1.5 km.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 3. On 28 May 2016, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instrument on NASA's Terra satellite acquired this natural-color image of an ash plume streaming NE from Bristol Island. The plume casts a shadow on the sea ice below. Most of the white in the image is likely ice, rather than clouds. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

The Buenos Aires VAAC issued multiple daily ash advisories during 29 May-7 June 2016. They noted that weather clouds mostly prevented satellite observations of Mount Sourabaya during 1-6 June, though a thermal anomaly was detected during 1-2 and 5-7 June. Satellite images from Suomi NPP/VIIRS often showed possible ash plumes mixed with clouds, but revealed distinct plumes on 2 and 4 June (figure 4) drifting E, and on 7 June towards the NE. On 16 June, a diffuse plume of volcanic ash was reported by the Buenos Aires VAAC moving SE at about 1.5 km altitude. MODVOLC thermal alerts continued even more strongly in June than during May. On almost every day, more than ten alerts were recorded, and they continued with a broad E-W distribution similar to that seen during May.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 4. An ash plume can be seen drifting E on 4 June 2016 from Bristol Island in this Suomi NPP/VIIRS image (Corrected Reflectance – True Color). Courtesy of NASA Worldview.

On 16 and 18 July, ash seen in Suomi NPP/VIIRS imagers appeared to be drifting NE, and on 19 July a faint thin ash plume was identified drifting 100 km NE; the persistent thermal anomaly continued to be visible. No further VAAC reports were issued after 21 July. Numerous MODVOLC thermal alerts continued during most days of July, until they stopped abruptly after the 17 alerts issued on 26 July (figure 5). The MIROVA thermal anomaly system captured a strong signal from Bristol Island between late April and late July 2016 (figure 6).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 5. MODVOLC thermal alerts during July 2016 suggest multiple origin points for the substantial thermal anomalies. Top left: the distribution of the 23 alerts issued on 3 July suggests multiple origin points. Top right: two distinct sources are apparent from the 15 alerts issued on 7 July. Lower left: the 30 alerts issued on 13 July are spread over a large E-W area and reflect multiple source points. Lower right: the 17 Alerts on 26 July show NE-SW trending elongate zones of thermal anomalies. Courtesy of HIGP MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 6. A strong thermal anomaly signal is apparent at Bristol Island during April-July 2016 in the MIROVA thermal anomaly data. Both blue and black lines signify eruptive activity. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Two satellite images, from 21 August and 22 September 2016, confirm the presence of new lava fields around the summit of Mount Sourabaya that were created during the April-July 2016 eruption (figure 7).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 7. Satellite imagery of Mount Sourabaya on Bristol Island on 21 August and 22 September 2016 after the eruptive episode of April-July shows evidence of lava flows onto ice and snow surrounding the summit. The upper image is from the Landsat Viewer/EOS Data Analytics annotated by the South Sandwich Islands blog; the lower image is a Landsat 8 image annotated by Cultur Volcan.

Information Contacts: NASA Earth Observatory, EOS Project Science Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/); NASA Worldview (URL: https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php?lang=es); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); South Sandwich Islands Volcano Monitoring Blog (URL: http://southsandwichmonitoring.blogspot.com/); Cultur Volcan, Journal d'un volcanophile (URL: https://laculturevolcan.blogspot.com/).

This compilation of synonyms and subsidiary features may not be comprehensive. Features are organized into four major categories: Cones, Craters, Domes, and Thermal Features. Synonyms of features appear indented below the primary name. In some cases additional feature type, elevation, or location details are provided.

Eruptive History

There is data available for 6 confirmed Holocene eruptive periods.

2016 Apr 24 - 2016 Jul 26 Confirmed Eruption Max VEI: 1

Episode 1 | Eruption Episode Main crater, Mt. Sourabaya
2016 Apr 24 - 2016 Jul 26 Evidence from Observations: Reported

List of 21 Events for Episode 1 at Main crater, Mt. Sourabaya

Start Date End Date Event Type Event Remarks
2016 Apr 24    - - - - Eruption cloud Landsat images detected a plume and a thermal anomaly in the main crater at the top of Mt. Sourabaya.
2016 Apr 24    - - - - Thermal Anomaly Landsat images detected a plume and a thermal anomaly in the main crater at the top of Mt. Sourabaya.
2016 Apr 24 2016 Apr 27 Thermal Anomaly Nine MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 Apr 30    - - - - Thermal Anomaly Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 May 3 2016 May 7 Thermal Anomaly Fifteen MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 May 11 2016 May 15 Thermal Anomaly Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 May 18 2016 Jun 26 Thermal Anomaly Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 May 28    - - - - Ash Plume According to NASA's Earth Observatory, a Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite image of Bristol Island showed an ash plume from Mt. Sourabaya drifting NE.
2016 May 29 2016 May 31 Ash Plume Based on satellite image analysis, the Buenos Aires VAAC reported that during 29-31 May gas plumes with possible minor ash content drifted as far as 185 km N, NNE, and SE at an altitude of 1.5 km.
2016 May 29    - - - - VEI (Explosivity Index) VEI 1
2016 Jun 1 2016 Jun 6 Thermal Anomaly The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that weather clouds mostly prevented satellite observations of Bristol Island's Mt. Sourabaya during 1-6 June, though a thermal anomaly was detected during 1-2 and 5-6 June.
2016 Jun 2 2016 Jun 7 Ash Plume The Buenos Aires VAAC issued multiple daily ash advisories during 29 May-7 June 2016. They noted that weather clouds mostly prevented satellite observations of Mount Sourabaya during 1-6 June, though a thermal anomaly was detected during 1-2 and 5-7 June. Satellite images from Suomi NPP/VIIRS often showed possible ash plumes mixed with clouds, but revealed distinct plumes on 2 and 4 June drifting E, and on 7 June towards the NE.
2016 Jun 16    - - - - Ash Plume The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that a diffuse ash plume from Bristol Island's Mt. Sourabaya was visible in satellite images rising to an altitude of 1.5 km and drifting SE. The report noted low confidence in the plume altitude due to weather clouds in the area.
2016 Jun 29    - - - - Thermal Anomaly Sixteen MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 Jul 3    - - - - Thermal Anomaly Fifteen MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 Jul 6 2016 Jul 21 Thermal Anomaly Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 Jul 16 2016 Jul 18 Ash Plume On 16 and 18 July, ash seen in Suomi NPP/VIIRS imagers appeared to be drifting NE.
2016 Jul 19    - - - - Ash Plume The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that a diffuse ash plume from Bristol Island's Mt. Sourabaya was visible in satellite images as a faint narrow ash plume drifting 100 km NE.
2016 Jul 19    - - - - Thermal Anomaly The Buenos Aires VAAC reported that a persistent thermal anomaly was identified in satellite data.
2016 Jul 25 2016 Jul 26 Thermal Anomaly Eighteen MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued.
2016 Aug 21
(in or before)
   - - - - Lava flow Satellite imagery of Mount Sourabaya on Bristol Island on 21 August and 22 September 2016 after the eruptive episode of April-July shows evidence of lava flows onto ice and snow surrounding the summit.

1956 Jan 11 - 1956 Jan 19 (?) Confirmed Eruption Max VEI: 3

Episode 1 | Eruption Episode West flank
1956 Jan 11 - 1956 Jan 19 (?) Evidence from Observations: Reported

List of 3 Events for Episode 1 at West flank

Start Date End Date Event Type Event Remarks
   - - - -    - - - - Explosion
   - - - -    - - - - Evacuations
1956 Jan 11    - - - - VEI (Explosivity Index)

1950 Mar 27 Confirmed Eruption Max VEI: 2

Episode 1 | Eruption Episode
1950 Mar 27 - Unknown Evidence from Observations: Reported

List of 2 Events for Episode 1

Start Date End Date Event Type Event Remarks
   - - - -    - - - - Explosion
1950 Mar 27    - - - - VEI (Explosivity Index)

1936 Dec 18 - 1937 Jan 1 (?) Confirmed Eruption Max VEI: 2

Episode 1 | Eruption Episode
1936 Dec 18 - 1937 Jan 1 (?) Evidence from Observations: Reported

List of 4 Events for Episode 1

Start Date End Date Event Type Event Remarks
   - - - -    - - - - Explosion
   - - - -    - - - - Lava flow
   - - - -    - - - - Lava flow Entered water.
1936 Dec 18    - - - - VEI (Explosivity Index)

1935 Dec 31 Confirmed Eruption Max VEI: 2

Episode 1 | Eruption Episode
1935 Dec 31 - Unknown Evidence from Observations: Reported

List of 2 Events for Episode 1

Start Date End Date Event Type Event Remarks
   - - - -    - - - - Explosion
1935 Dec 31    - - - - VEI (Explosivity Index)

1823 Confirmed Eruption Max VEI: 2

Episode 1 | Eruption Episode
1823 - Unknown Evidence from Observations: Reported

List of 2 Events for Episode 1

Start Date End Date Event Type Event Remarks
   - - - -    - - - - Explosion Uncertain
1823    - - - - VEI (Explosivity Index)
Deformation History

There is no Deformation History data available for Bristol Island.

Emission History

There is no Emissions History data available for Bristol Island.

GVP Map Holdings

The maps shown below have been scanned from the GVP map archives and include the volcano on this page. Clicking on the small images will load the full 300 dpi map. Very small-scale maps (such as world maps) are not included. The maps database originated over 30 years ago, but was only recently updated and connected to our main database. We welcome users to tell us if they see incorrect information or other problems with the maps; please use the Contact GVP link at the bottom of the page to send us email.

Smithsonian Sample Collections Database

There are no samples for Bristol Island in the Smithsonian's NMNH Department of Mineral Sciences Rock and Ore collection.

External Sites