Manam is a 10-km-wide island that consists of two active summit craters: the Main summit crater and the South summit crater and is located 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea. Frequent mild-to-moderate eruptions have been recorded since 1616. The current eruption period began during June 2014 and has more recently been characterized by intermittent ash plumes and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report updates activity that occurred from November 2022 through May 2023 based on information from the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and various satellite data.

Ash plumes were reported during November and December 2022 by the Darwin VAAC. On 7 November an ash plume rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted NE based on satellite images and weather models. On 14 November an ash plume rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted W based on RVO webcam images. On 20 November ash plumes rose to 1.8 km altitude and drifted NW. On 26 December an ash plume rose to 3 km altitude and drifted S and SSE.

Intermittent sulfur dioxide plumes were detected using the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite, some of which exceeded at least two Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions (figure 93). Occasional low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were recorded by the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) system; less than five anomalies were recorded each month during November 2022 through May 2023 (figure 94). Two thermal hotspots were detected by the MODVOLC thermal alerts system on 10 December 2022. On clear weather days, thermal activity was also captured in infrared satellite imagery in both the Main and South summit craters, accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions (figure 95).

Figure 93. Distinct sulfur dioxide plumes were captured, rising from Manam based on data from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite on 16 November 2022 (top left), 6 December 2022 (top right), 14 January 2023 (bottom left), and 23 March 2023 (bottom right). Plumes generally drifted in different directions. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Figure 94. Occasional low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were detected at Manam during November 2022 through May 2023, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). Only three anomalies were detected during late November, one in early December, two during January 2023, one in late March, four during April, and one during late May. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 95. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images show a consistent thermal anomaly (bright yellow-orange) in both the Main (the northern crater) and South summit craters on 10 November 2022 (top left), 15 December 2022 (top right), 3 February 2023 (bottom left), and 24 April 2023 (bottom right). Gas-and-steam emissions occasionally accompanied the thermal activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The 10-km-wide island of Manam, lying 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea, is one of the country's most active volcanoes. Four large radial valleys extend from the unvegetated summit of the conical basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano to its lower flanks. These valleys channel lava flows and pyroclastic avalanches that have sometimes reached the coast. Five small satellitic centers are located near the island's shoreline on the northern, southern, and western sides. Two summit craters are present; both are active, although most observed eruptions have originated from the southern crater, concentrating eruptive products during much of the past century into the SE valley. Frequent eruptions, typically of mild-to-moderate scale, have been recorded since 1616. Occasional larger eruptions have produced pyroclastic flows and lava flows that reached flat-lying coastal areas and entered the sea, sometimes impacting populated areas.

Information Contacts: Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO), Geohazards Management Division, Department of Mineral Policy and Geohazards Management (DMPGM), PO Box 3386, Kokopo, East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea; Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Krakatau is located in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan cones and left only a remnant of Rakata. The post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former Danan and Perbuwatan cones; it has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927. The current eruption period began in May 2021 and has recently consisted of explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers activity during November 2022 through April 2023 based on information provided by the Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, referred to as Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and several sources of satellite data.

Activity was relatively low during November and December 2022. Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-100 m above the summit and drifted in different directions. Gray ash plumes rose 200 m above the summit and drifted NE at 1047 and at 2343 on 11 November. On 14 November at 0933 ash plumes rose 300 m above the summit and drifted E. An ash plume was reported at 0935 on 15 December that rose 100 m above the summit and drifted NE. An eruptive event at 1031 later that day generated an ash plume that rose 700 m above the summit and drifted NE. A gray ash plume at 1910 rose 100 m above the summit and drifted E. Incandescent material was ejected above the vent based on an image taken at 1936.

During January 2023 daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions. Gray-to-brown ash plumes were reported at 1638 on 3 January, at 1410 and 1509 on 4 January, and at 0013 on 5 January that rose 100-750 m above the summit and drifted NE and E; the gray-to-black ash plume at 1509 on 4 January rose as high as 3 km above the summit and drifted E. Gray ash plumes were recorded at 1754, 2241, and 2325 on 11 January and at 0046 on 12 January and rose 200-300 m above the summit and drifted NE. Toward the end of January, PVMBG reported that activity had intensified; Strombolian activity was visible in webcam images taken at 0041, 0043, and 0450 on 23 January. Multiple gray ash plumes throughout the day rose 200-500 m above the summit and drifted E and SE (figure 135). Webcam images showed progressively intensifying Strombolian activity at 1919, 1958, and 2113 on 24 January; a gray ash plume at 1957 rose 300 m above the summit and drifted E (figure 135). Eruptive events at 0231 and 2256 on 25 January and at 0003 on 26 January ejected incandescent material from the vent, based on webcam images. Gray ash plumes observed during 26-27 January rose 300-500 m above the summit and drifted NE, E, and SE.

Figure 135. Webcam images of a strong, gray ash plume (left) and Strombolian activity (right) captured at Krakatau at 0802 on 23 January 2023 (left) and at 2116 on 24 January 2023 (right). Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Low levels of activity were reported during February and March. Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in different directions. The Darwin VAAC reported that continuous ash emissions rose to 1.5-1.8 km altitude and drifted W and NW during 1240-1300 on 10 March, based on satellite images, weather models, and PVMBG webcams. White-and-gray ash plumes rose 500 m and 300 m above the summit and drifted SW at 1446 and 1846 on 18 March, respectively. An eruptive event was recorded at 2143, though it was not visible due to darkness. Multiple ash plumes were reported during 27-29 March that rose as high as 2.5 km above the summit and drifted NE, W, and SW (figure 136). Webcam images captured incandescent ejecta above the vent at 0415 and around the summit area at 2003 on 28 March and at 0047 above the vent on 29 March.

Figure 136. Webcam image of a strong ash plume rising above Krakatau at 1522 on 28 March 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions during April and May. White-and-gray and black plumes rose 50-300 m above the summit on 2 and 9 April. On 11 May at 1241 a gray ash plume rose 1-3 km above the summit and drifted SW. On 12 May at 0920 a gray ash plume rose 2.5 km above the summit and drifted SW and at 2320 an ash plume rose 1.5 km above the summit and drifted SW. An accompanying webcam image showed incandescent ejecta. On 13 May at 0710 a gray ash plume rose 2 km above the summit and drifted SW (figure 137).

Figure 137. Webcam image of an ash plume rising 2 km above the summit of Krakatau at 0715 on 13 May 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph of MODIS thermal anomaly data showed intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 138). Some of this thermal activity was also visible in infrared satellite imagery at the crater, accompanied by gas-and-steam and ash plumes that drifted in different directions (figure 139).

Figure 138. Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were detected at Krakatau during November 2022 through April 2023, based on this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 139. A thermal anomaly (bright yellow-orange) was visible at Krakatau in infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images on clear weather days during November 2022 through May 2023. Occasional gas-and-steam and ash plumes accompanied the thermal activity, which drifted in different directions. Images were captured on 25 November 2022 (top left), 15 December 2022 (top right), 27 January 2023 (bottom left), and 12 May 2023 (bottom right). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The renowned Krakatau (frequently mis-named as Krakatoa) volcano lies in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. Collapse of an older edifice, perhaps in 416 or 535 CE, formed a 7-km-wide caldera. Remnants of that volcano are preserved in Verlaten and Lang Islands; subsequently the Rakata, Danan, and Perbuwatan cones were formed, coalescing to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan, and left only a remnant of Rakata. This eruption caused more than 36,000 fatalities, most as a result of tsunamis that swept the adjacent coastlines of Sumatra and Java. Pyroclastic surges traveled 40 km across the Sunda Strait and reached the Sumatra coast. After a quiescence of less than a half century, the post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former Danan and Perbuwatan cones. Anak Krakatau has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Stromboli, located in Italy, has exhibited nearly constant lava fountains for the past 2,000 years; recorded eruptions date back to 350 BCE. Eruptive activity occurs at the summit from multiple vents, which include a north crater area (N area) and a central-southern crater (CS area) on a terrace known as the ‘terrazza craterica’ at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a large scarp that runs from the summit down the NW side of the volcano-island. Activity typically consists of Strombolian explosions, incandescent ejecta, lava flows, and pyroclastic flows. Thermal and visual monitoring cameras are located on the nearby Pizzo Sopra La Fossa, above the terrazza craterica, and at multiple flank locations. The current eruption period has been ongoing since 1934 and recent activity has consisted of frequent Strombolian explosions and lava flows (BGVN 48:02). This report updates activity during January through April 2023 primarily characterized by Strombolian explosions and lava flows based on reports from Italy's Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) and various satellite data.

Frequent explosive activity continued throughout the reporting period, generally in the low-to-medium range, based on the number of hourly explosions in the summit crater (figure 253, table 16). Intermittent thermal activity was recorded by the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data (figure 254). According to data collected by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, a total of 9 thermal alerts were detected: one on 2 January 2023, one on 1 February, five on 24 March, and two on 26 March. The stronger pulses of thermal activity likely reflected lava flow events. Infrared satellite imagery captured relatively strong thermal hotspots at the two active summit craters on clear weather days, showing an especially strong event on 8 March (figure 255).

Figure 253. Explosive activity persisted at Stromboli during January through April 2023, with low to medium numbers of daily explosions at the summit crater. The average number of daily explosions (y-axis) during January through April (x-axis) are broken out by area and as a total, with red for the N area, blue for the CS area, and black for the combined total. The data are smoothed as daily (thin lines) and weekly (thick lines) averages. The black squares along the top represent days with no observations due to poor visibility (Visib. Scarsa). The right axis indicates the qualitative activity levels from low (basso) to highest (altissimo) with the green highlighted band indicating the most common level. Courtesy of INGV (Report 17/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 18/04/2023 - 24/04/2023).

Table 16. Summary of type, frequency, and intensity of explosive activity at Stromboli by month during January-April 2023; information from webcam observations. Courtesy of INGV weekly reports.

Figure 254. Intermittent thermal activity at Stromboli was detected during January through April 2023 and varied in strength, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). A pulse of activity was captured during late March. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 255. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images showing persistent thermal anomalies at both summit crater on 1 February 2023 (top left), 23 March 2023 (top right), 8 March 2023 (bottom left), and 27 April 2023. A particularly strong thermal anomaly was visible on 8 March. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Activity during January-February 2023. Strombolian explosions were reported in the N crater area, as well as lava effusion. Explosive activity in the N crater area ejected coarse material (bombs and lapilli). Intense spattering was observed in both the N1 and N2 craters. In the CS crater area, explosions generally ejected fine material (ash), sometimes to heights greater than 250 m. The intensity of the explosions was characterized as low-to-medium in the N crater and medium-to-high in the CS crater. After intense spattering activity from the N crater area, a lava overflow began at 2136 on 2 January that flowed part way down the Sciara del Fuoco, possibly moving down the drainage that formed in October, out of view from webcams. The flow remained active for a couple of hours before stopping and beginning to cool. A second lava flow was reported at 0224 on 4 January that similarly remained active for a few hours before stopping and cooling. Intense spattering was observed on 11 and 13 January from the N1 crater. After intense spattering activity at the N2 crater at 1052 on 17 January another lava flow started to flow into the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco (figure 256), dividing into two: one that traveled in the direction of the drainage formed in October, and the other one moving parallel to the point of emission. By the afternoon, the rate of the flow began to decrease, and at 1900 it started to cool. A lava flow was reported at 1519 on 24 January following intense spattering in the N2 area, which began to flow into the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco. By the morning of 25 January, the lava flow had begun to cool. During 27 January the frequency of eruption in the CS crater area increased to 6-7 events/hour compared to the typical 1-7 events/hour; the following two days showed a decrease in frequency to less than 1 event/hour. Starting at 1007 on 30 January a high-energy explosive sequence was produced by vents in the CS crater area. The sequence began with an initial energetic pulse that lasted 45 seconds, ejecting predominantly coarse products 300 m above the crater that fell in an ESE direction. Subsequent and less intense explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater. The total duration of this event lasted approximately two minutes. During 31 January through 6, 13, and 24 February spattering activity was particularly intense for short periods in the N2 crater.

Figure 256. Webcam images of the lava flow development at Stromboli during 17 January 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. The lava flow appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. Courtesy of INGV (Report 04/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 16/01/2023 - 22/01/2023).

An explosive sequence was reported on 16 February that was characterized by a major explosion in the CS crater area (figure 257). The sequence began at 1817 near the S2 crater that ejected material radially. A few seconds later, lava fountains were observed in the central part of the crater. Three explosions of medium intensity (material was ejected less than 150 m high) were recorded at the S2 crater. The first part of this sequence lasted approximately one minute, according to INGV, and material rose 300 m above the crater and then was deposited along the Sciara del Fuoco. The second phase began at 1818 at the S1 crater; it lasted seven seconds and material was ejected 150 m above the crater. Another event 20 seconds later lasted 12 seconds, also ejecting material 150 m above the crater. The sequence ended with at least three explosions of mostly fine material from the S1 crater. The total duration of this sequence was about two minutes.

Figure 257. Webcam images of the explosive sequence at Stromboli on 16 February 2023 taken by the SCT and SCV infrared and visible cameras. The lava appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. Courtesy of INGV (Report 08/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 13/02/2023 - 19/02/2023).

Short, intense spattering activity was noted above the N1 crater on 27 and 28 February. A lava overflow was first reported at 0657 from the N2 crater on 27 February that flowed into the October 2022 drainage. By 1900 the flow had stopped. A second lava overflow also in the N crater area occurred at 2149, which overlapped the first flow and then stopped by 0150 on 28 February. Material detached from both the lava overflows rolled down the Sciara del Fuoco, some of which was visible in webcam images.

Activity during March-April 2023. Strombolian activity continued with spattering activity and lava overflows in the N crater area during March. Explosive activity at the N crater area varied from low (less than 80 m high) to medium (less than 150 m high) and ejected coarse material, such as bombs and lapilli. Spattering was observed above the N1 crater, while explosive activity at the CS crater area varied from medium to high (greater than 150 m high) and ejected coarse material. Intense spattering activity was observed for short periods on 6 March above the N1 crater. At approximately 0610 a lava overflow was reported around the N2 crater on 8 March, which then flowed into the October 2022 drainage. By 1700 the flow started to cool. A second overflow began at 1712 on 9 March and overlapped the previous flow. It had stopped by 2100. Material from both flows was deposited along the Sciara del Fuoco, though much of the activity was not visible in webcam images. On 11 March a lava overflow was observed at 0215 that overlapped the two previous flows in the October 2022 drainage. By late afternoon on 12 March, it had stopped.

During a field excursion on 16 March, scientists noted that a vent in the central crater area was degassing. Another vent showed occasional Strombolian activity that emitted ash and lapilli. During 1200-1430 low-to-medium intense activity was reported; the N1 crater emitted ash emissions and the N2 crater emitted both ash and coarse material. Some explosions also occurred in the CS crater area that ejected coarse material. The C crater in the CS crater area occasionally showed gas jetting and low intensity explosions on 17 and 22 March; no activity was observed at the S1 crater. Intense, longer periods of spattering were reported in the N1 crater on 19, 24, and 25 March. Around 2242 on 23 March a lava overflow began from the N1 crater that, after about an hour, began moving down the October 2022 drainage and flow along the Sciara del Fuoco (figure 258). Between 0200 and 0400 on 26 March the flow rate increased, which generated avalanches of material from collapses at the advancing flow front. By early afternoon, the flow began to cool. On 25 March at 1548 an explosive sequence began from one of the vents at S2 in the CS crater area (figure 258). Fine ash mixed with coarse material was ejected 300 m above the crater rim and drifted SSE. Some modest explosions around Vent C were detected at 1549 on 25 March, which included an explosion at 1551 that ejected coarse material. The entire explosive sequence lasted approximately three minutes.

Figure 258. Webcam images of the lava overflow in the N1 crater area of Stromboli on 23 March 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. The lava appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. The start of the explosive sequence was also captured on 25 March 2023 accompanied by an eruption plume (e) captured by the SCT and SPT infrared webcams. Courtesy of INGV (Report 13/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 20/03/2023 - 26/03/2023).

During April explosions persisted in both the N and CS crater areas. Fine material was ejected less than 80 m above the N crater rim until 6 April, followed by ejection of coarser material. Fine material was also ejected less than 80 m above the CS crater rim. The C and S2 crater did not show significant eruptive activity. On 7 April an explosive sequence was detected in the CS crater area at 1203 (figure 259). The first explosion lasted approximately 18 seconds and ejected material 400 m above the crater rim, depositing pyroclastic material in the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco. At 1204 a second, less intense explosion lasted approximately four seconds and deposited pyroclastic products outside the crater area and near Pizzo Sopra La Fossa. A third explosion at 1205 was mainly composed of ash that rose about 150 m above the crater and lasted roughly 20 seconds. A fourth explosion occurred at 1205 about 28 seconds after the third explosion and ejected a mixture of coarse and fine material about 200 m above the crater; the explosion lasted roughly seven seconds. Overall, the entire explosive sequence lasted about two minutes and 20 seconds. After the explosive sequence on 7 April, explosions in both the N and CS crater areas ejected material as high as 150 m above the crater.

Figure 259. Webcam images of the explosive sequence at Stromboli during 1203-1205 (local time) on 7 April 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. Strong eruption plumes are visible, accompanied by deposits on the nearby flanks. Courtesy of INGV (Report 15/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 03/04/2023 - 09/04/2023).

On 21 April research scientists from INGV made field observations in the summit area of Stromboli, and some lapilli samples were collected. In the N crater area near the N1 crater, a small cone was observed with at least two active vents, one of which was characterized by Strombolian explosions. The other vent produced explosions that ejected ash and chunks of cooled lava. At the N2 crater at least one vent was active and frequently emitted ash. In the CS crater area, a small cone contained 2-3 degassing vents and a smaller, possible fissure area also showed signs of degassing close to the Pizzo Sopra La Fossa. In the S part of the crater, three vents were active: a small hornito was characterized by modest and rare explosions, a vent that intermittently produced weak Strombolian explosions, and a vent at the end of the terrace that produced frequent ash emissions. Near the S1 crater there was a hornito that generally emitted weak gas-and-steam emissions, sometimes associated with “gas rings”. On 22 April another field inspection was carried out that reported two large sliding surfaces on the Sciara del Fuoco that showed where blocks frequently descended toward the sea. A thermal anomaly was detected at 0150 on 29 April.

Geologic Background. Spectacular incandescent nighttime explosions at Stromboli have long attracted visitors to the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean" in the NE Aeolian Islands. This volcano has lent its name to the frequent mild explosive activity that has characterized its eruptions throughout much of historical time. The small island is the emergent summit of a volcano that grew in two main eruptive cycles, the last of which formed the western portion of the island. The Neostromboli eruptive period took place between about 13,000 and 5,000 years ago. The active summit vents are located at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a prominent scarp that formed about 5,000 years ago due to a series of slope failures which extends to below sea level. The modern volcano has been constructed within this scarp, which funnels pyroclastic ejecta and lava flows to the NW. Essentially continuous mild Strombolian explosions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded for more than a millennium.

Information Contacts: Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Sezione di Catania, Piazza Roma 2, 95123 Catania, Italy, (URL: http://www.ct.ingv.it/en/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Nishinoshima is a small island located about 1,000 km S of Tokyo in the Ogasawara Arc in Japan. The island is the summit of a massive submarine volcano that has prominent peaks to the S, W, and NE. Eruptions date back to 1973; the most recent eruption period began in October 2022 and was characterized by ash plumes and fumarolic activity (BGVN 47:12). This report describes ash plumes and fumarolic activity during November 2022 through April 2023 based on monthly reports from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) monthly reports and satellite data.

The most recent eruptive activity prior to the reporting internal occurred on 12 October 2022, when an ash plume rose 3.5 km above the crater rim. An aerial observation conducted by the Japan Coast Guard (JCG) on 25 November reported that white fumaroles rose approximately 200 m above the central crater of a pyroclastic cone (figure 119), and multiple plumes were observed on the ESE flank of the cone. Discolored water ranging from reddish-brown to brown and yellowish-green were visible around the perimeter of the island (figure 119). No significant activity was reported in December.

Figure 119. Aerial photo of gas-and-steam plumes rising 200 m above Nishinoshima on 25 November 2022. Reddish brown to brown and yellowish-green discolored water was visible around the perimeter of the island. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, November 2022).

During an overflight conducted by JCG on 25 January 2023 intermittent activity and small, blackish-gray plumes rose 900 m above the central part of the crater were observed (figure 120). The fumarolic zone of the E flank and base of the cone had expanded and emissions had intensified. Dark brown discolored water was visible around the perimeter of the island.

Figure 120. Aerial photo of a black-gray ash plume rising approximately 900 m above the crater rim of Nishinoshima on 25 January 2023. White fumaroles were visible on the E slope of the pyroclastic cone. Dense brown to brown discolored water was observed surrounding the island. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, January, 2023).

No significant activity was reported during February through March. Ash plumes at 1050 and 1420 on 11 April rose 1.9 km above the crater rim and drifted NW and N. These were the first ash plumes observed since 12 October 2022. On 14 April JCG carried out an overflight and reported that no further eruptive activity was visible, although white gas-and-steam plumes were visible from the central crater and rose 900 m high (figure 121). Brownish and yellow-green discolored water surrounded the island.

Figure 121. Aerial photo of white gas-and-steam plumes rising 900 m above Nishinoshima on 14 April 2023. Brown and yellow-green discolored water is visible around the perimeter of the island. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, April, 2023).

Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were recorded in the MIROVA graph (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 123). A cluster of six to eight anomalies were detected during November while a smaller number were detected during the following months: two to three during December, one during mid-January 2023, one during February, five during March, and two during April. Thermal activity was also reflected in infrared satellite data at the summit crater, accompanied by occasional gas-and-steam plumes (figure 124).

Figure 123. Intermittent low-to-moderate thermal anomalies were detected at Nishinoshima during November 2022 through April 2023, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). A cluster of anomalies occurred throughout November, while fewer anomalies were detected during the following months. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 124. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images show a small thermal anomaly at the summit crater of Nishinoshima on 9 January 2023 (left) and 8 February 2023 (right). Gas-and-steam plumes accompanied this activity and extended S and SE, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The small island of Nishinoshima was enlarged when several new islands coalesced during an eruption in 1973-74. Multiple eruptions that began in 2013 completely covered the previous exposed surface and continued to enlarge the island. The island is the summit of a massive submarine volcano that has prominent peaks to the S, W, and NE. The summit of the southern cone rises to within 214 m of the ocean surface 9 km SSE.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 1-3-4 Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Karangetang (also known as Api Siau), at the northern end of the island of Siau, Indonesia, contains five summit craters along a N-S line. More than 40 eruptions have been recorded since 1675; recent eruptions have included frequent explosive activity, sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters and collapses of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows. The two active summit craters are Kawah Dua (the N crater) and Kawah Utama (the S crater, also referred to as the “Main Crater”). The most recent eruption began in late November 2018 and has more recently consisted of weak thermal activity and gas-and-steam emissions (BGVN 48:01). This report updates activity characterized by lava flows, incandescent avalanches, and ash plumes during January through June 2023 using reports from Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM, or the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin VAAC (Volcano Ash Advisory Center), and satellite data.

Activity during January was relatively low and mainly consisted of white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 25-150 m above Main Crater (S crater) and drifted in different directions. Incandescence was visible from the lava dome in Kawah Dua (the N crater). Weather conditions often prevented clear views of the summit. On 18 January the number of seismic signals that indicated avalanches of material began to increase. In addition, there were a total of 71 earthquakes detected during the month.

Activity continued to increase during the first week of February. Material from Main Crater traveled as far as 800 m down the Batuawang (S) and Batang (W) drainages and as far as 1 km W down the Beha (W) drainage on 4 February. On 6 February 43 earthquake events were recorded, and on 7 February, 62 events were recorded. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 25-250 m above both summit craters throughout the month. PVMBG reported an eruption began during the evening of 8 February around 1700. Photos showed incandescent material at Main Crater. Incandescent material had also descended the flank in at least two unconfirmed directions as far as 2 km from Main Crater, accompanied by ash plumes (figure 60). As a result, PVMBG increased the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) to 3 (the second highest level on a 1-4 scale).

Figure 60. Photos of the eruption at Karangetang on 8 February 2023 that consisted of incandescent material descending the flanks (top left), ash plumes (top right and bottom left), and summit crater incandescence (bottom right). Courtesy of IDN Times.

Occasional nighttime webcam images showed three main incandescent lava flows of differing lengths traveling down the S, SW, and W flanks (figure 61). Incandescent rocks were visible on the upper flanks, possibly from ejected or collapsed material from the crater, and incandescence was the most intense at the summit. Based on analyses of satellite imagery and weather models, the Darwin VAAC reported that daily ash plumes during 16-20 February rose to 2.1-3 km altitude and drifted NNE, E, and SE. BNPB reported on 16 February that as many as 77 people were evacuated and relocated to the East Siau Museum. A webcam image taken at 2156 on 17 February possibly showed incandescent material descending the SE flank. Ash plumes rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted SE during 22-23 February, according to the Darwin VAAC.

Figure 61. Webcam image of summit incandescence and lava flows descending the S, SW, and W flanks of Karangetang on 13 February 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Incandescent avalanches of material and summit incandescence at Main Crater continued during March. White gas-and-steam emissions during March generally rose 25-150 m above the summit crater; on 31 March gas-and-steam emissions rose 200-400 m high. An ash plume rose to 2.4 km altitude and drifted S at 1710 on 9 March and a large thermal anomaly was visible in images taken at 0550 and 0930 on 10 March. Incandescent material was visible at the summit and on the flanks based on webcam images taken at 0007 and 2345 on 16 March, at 1828 on 17 March, at 1940 on 18 March, at 2311 on 19 March, and at 2351 on 20 March. Incandescence was most intense on 18 and 20 March and webcam images showed possible Strombolian explosions (figure 62). An ash plume rose to 2.4 km altitude and drifted SW on 18 March, accompanied by a thermal anomaly.

Figure 62. Webcam image of intense summit incandescence and incandescent avalanches descending the flanks of Karangetang on 18 March 2023. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Summit crater incandescence at Main Crater and on the flanks persisted during April. Incandescent material at the S crater and on the flanks was reported at 0016 on 1 April. The lava flows had stopped by 1 April according to PVMBG, although incandescence was still visible up to 10 m high. Seismic signals indicating effusion decreased and by 6 April they were no longer detected. Incandescence was visible from both summit craters. On 26 April the VAL was lowered to 2 (the second lowest level on a 1-4 scale). White gas-and-steam emissions rose 25-200 m above the summit crater.

During May white gas-and-steam emissions generally rose 50-250 m above the summit, though it was often cloudy, which prevented clear views; on 21 May gas-and-steam emissions rose 50-400 m high. Nighttime N summit crater incandescence rose 10-25 m above the lava dome, and less intense incandescence was noted above Main Crater, which reached about 10 m above the dome. Sounds of falling rocks at Main Crater were heard on 15 May and the seismic network recorded 32 rockfall events in the crater on 17 May. Avalanches traveled as far as 1.5 km down the SW and S flanks, accompanied by rumbling sounds on 18 May. Incandescent material descending the flanks was captured in a webcam image at 2025 on 19 May (figure 63) and on 29 May; summit crater incandescence was observed in webcam images at 2332 on 26 May and at 2304 on 29 May. On 19 May the VAL was again raised to 3.

Figure 63. Webcam image showing incandescent material descending the flanks of Karangetang on 19 May 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Occasional Main Crater incandescence was reported during June, as well as incandescent material on the flanks. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 10-200 m above the summit crater. Ash plumes rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted SE and E during 2-4 June, according to the Darwin VAAC. Material on the flanks of Main Crater were observed at 2225 on 7 June, at 2051 on 9 June, at 0007 on 17 June, and at 0440 on 18 June. Webcam images taken on 21, 25, and 27 June showed incandescence at Main Crater and from material on the flanks.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed strong thermal activity during mid-February through March and mid-May through June, which represented incandescent avalanches and lava flows (figure 64). During April through mid-May the power of the anomalies decreased but frequent anomalies were still detected. Brief gaps in activity occurred during late March through early April and during mid-June. Infrared satellite images showed strong lava flows mainly affecting the SW and S flanks, accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions (figure 65). According to data recorded by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, there were a total of 79 thermal hotspots detected: 28 during February, 24 during March, one during April, five during May, and 21 during June.

Figure 64. Strong thermal activity was detected during mid-February 2023 through March and mid-May through June at Karangetang during January through June 2023, as recorded by this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). During April through mid-May the power of the anomalies decreased, but the frequency at which they occurred was still relatively high. A brief gap in activity was shown during mid-June. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 65. Incandescent avalanches of material and summit crater incandescence was visible in infrared satellite images (bands 12, 11, 8A) at both the N and S summit crater of Karangetang on 17 February 2023 (top left), 13 April 2023 (top right), 28 May 2023 (bottom left), and 7 June 2023 (bottom right), as shown in these infrared (bands 12, 11, 8A) satellite images. The incandescent avalanches mainly affected the SW and S flanks. Sometimes gas-and-steam plumes accompanied the thermal activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Karangetang (Api Siau) volcano lies at the northern end of the island of Siau, about 125 km NNE of the NE-most point of Sulawesi. The stratovolcano contains five summit craters along a N-S line. It is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, with more than 40 eruptions recorded since 1675 and many additional small eruptions that were not documented (Neumann van Padang, 1951). Twentieth-century eruptions have included frequent explosive activity sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters; collapse of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); IDN Times, Jl. Jend. Gatot Subroto Kav. 27 3rd Floor Kuningan, Jakarta, Indonesia 12950, Status of Karangetang Volcano in Sitaro Islands Increases (URL: https://sulsel.idntimes.com/news/indonesia/savi/status-gunung-api-karangetang-di-kepulauan-sitaro-meningkat?page=all).

Ahyi seamount is a large, conical submarine volcano that rises to within 75 m of the ocean surface about 18 km SE of the island of Farallon de Pajaros in the Northern Marianas. The remote location of the seamount has made eruptions difficult to document, but seismic stations installed in the region confirmed an eruption in the vicinity in 2001. No new activity was detected until April-May 2014 when an eruption was detected by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) divers, hydroacoustic sensors, and seismic stations (BGVN 42:04). New activity was first detected on 15 November by hydroacoustic sensors that were consistent with submarine volcanic activity. This report covers activity during November 2022 through June 2023 based on daily and weekly reports from the US Geological Survey.

Starting in mid-October, hydroacoustic sensors at Wake Island (2.2 km E) recorded signals consistent with submarine volcanic activity, according to a report from the USGS issued on 15 November 2022. A combined analysis of the hydroacoustic signals and seismic stations located at Guam and Chichijima Island, Japan, suggested that the source of this activity was at or near the Ahyi seamount. After a re-analysis of a satellite image of the area that was captured on 6 November, USGS confirmed that there was no evidence of discoloration at the ocean surface. Few hydroacoustic and seismic signals continued through November, including on 18 November, which USGS suggested signified a decline or pause in unrest. A VONA (Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation) reported that a discolored water plume was persistently visible in satellite data starting on 18 November (figure 6). Though clouds often obscured clear views of the volcano, another discolored water plume was captured in a satellite image on 26 November. The Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) and the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) was raised to Advisory (the second lowest level on a four-level scale) on 29 November.

Figure 6. A clear, true color satellite image showed a yellow-green discolored water plume extending NW from the Ahyi seamount (white arrow) on 21 November 2022. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

During December, occasional detections were recorded on the Wake Island hydrophone sensors and discolored water over the seamount remained visible. During 2-7, 10-12, and 16-31 December possible explosion signals were detected. A small area of discolored water was observed in high-resolution Sentinel-2 satellite images during 1-6 December (figure 7). High-resolution satellite images recorded discolored water plumes on 13 December that originated from the summit region; no observations indicated that activity breached the ocean surface. A possible underwater plume was visible in satellite images on 18 December, and during 19-20 December a definite but diffuse underwater plume located SSE from the main vent was reported. An underwater plume was visible in a satellite image taken on 26 December (figure 7).

Figure 7. Clear, true color satellite images showed yellow-green discolored water plumes extending NE and W from Ahyi (white arrows) on 1 (left) and 26 (right) December 2022, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Hydrophone sensors continued to detect signals consistent with possible explosions during 1-8 January 2023. USGS reported that the number of detections decreased during 4-5 January. The hydrophone sensors experienced a data outage that started at 0118 on 8 January and continued through 10 January, though according to USGS, possible explosions were recorded prior to the data outage and likely continued during the outage. A discolored water plume originating from the summit region was detected in a partly cloudy satellite image on 8 January. On 11-12 and 15-17 January possible explosion signals were recorded again. One small signal was detected during 22-23 January and several signals were recorded on 25 and 31 January. During 27-31 January a plume of discolored water was observed above the seamount in satellite imagery (figure 8).

Figure 8. True color satellite images showed intermittent yellow-green discolored water plumes of various sizes extending N on 5 January 2023 (top left), SE on 30 January 2023 (top right), W on 4 February 2023 (bottom left), and SW on 1 March 2023 (bottom right) from Ahyi (white arrows). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Low levels of activity continued during February and March, based on data from pressure sensors on Wake Island. During 1 and 4-6 February activity was reported, and a submarine plume was observed on 4 February (figure 8). Possible explosion signals were detected during 7-8, 10, 13-14, and 24 February. During 1-2 and 3-5 March a plume of discolored water was observed in satellite imagery (figure 8). Almost continuous hydroacoustic signals were detected in remote pressure sensor data on Wake Island 2,270 km E from the volcano during 7-13 March. During 12-13 March water discoloration around the seamount was observed in satellite imagery, despite cloudy weather. By 14 March discolored water extended about 35 km, but no direction was noted. USGS reported that the continuous hydroacoustic signals detected during 13-14 March stopped abruptly on 14 March and no new detections were observed. Three 30 second hydroacoustic detections were reported during 17-19 March, but no activity was visible due to cloudy weather. A data outage was reported during 21-22 March, making pressure sensor data unavailable; a discolored water plume was, however, visible in satellite data. A possible underwater explosion signal was detected by pressure sensors at Wake Island on 26, 29, and 31 March, though the cause and origin of these events were unclear.

Similar low activity continued during April, May, and June. Several signals were detected during 1-3 April in pressure sensors at Wake Island. USGS suggested that these may be related to underwater explosions or earthquakes at the volcano, but no underwater plumes were visible in clear satellite images. The pressure sensors had data outages during 12-13 April and no data were recorded; no underwater plumes were visible in satellite images, although cloudy weather obscured most clear views. Eruptive activity was reported starting at 2210 on 21 May. On 22 May a discolored water plume that extended 4 km was visible in satellite images, though no direction was recorded. During 23-24 May some signals were detected by the underwater pressure sensors. Possible hydroacoustic signals were detected during 2-3 and 6-8 June. Multiple hydroacoustic signals were detected during 9-11 and 16-17 June, although no activity was visible in satellite images. One hydroacoustic signal was detected during 23-24 June, but there was some uncertainty about its association with volcanic activity. A single possible hydroacoustic signal was detected during 30 June to 1 July.

Geologic Background. Ahyi seamount is a large conical submarine volcano that rises to within 75 m of the ocean surface ~18 km SE of the island of Farallon de Pajaros in the northern Marianas. Water discoloration has been observed there, and in 1979 the crew of a fishing boat felt shocks over the summit area, followed by upwelling of sulfur-bearing water. On 24-25 April 2001 an explosive eruption was detected seismically by a station on Rangiroa Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago. The event was well constrained (+/- 15 km) at a location near the southern base of Ahyi. An eruption in April-May 2014 was detected by NOAA divers, hydroacoustic sensors, and seismic stations.

Information Contacts: US Geological Survey, Volcano Hazards Program (USGS-VHP), 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, VA, USA, https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/index.html; Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Kadovar is a 2-km-wide island that is the emergent summit of a Bismarck Sea stratovolcano. It lies off the coast of New Guinea, about 25 km N of the mouth of the Sepik River. Prior to an eruption that began in 2018, a lava dome formed the high point of the volcano, filling an arcuate landslide scarp open to the S. Submarine debris-avalanche deposits occur to the S of the island. The current eruption began in January 2018 and has comprised lava effusion from vents at the summit and at the E coast; more recent activity has consisted of ash plumes, weak thermal activity, and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 48:02). This report covers activity during February through May 2023 using information from the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and satellite data.

Activity during the reporting period was relatively low and mainly consisted of white gas-and-steam plumes that were visible in natural color satellite images on clear weather days (figure 67). According to a Darwin VAAC report, at 2040 on 6 May an ash plume rose to 4.6 km altitude and drifted W; by 2300 the plume had dissipated. MODIS satellite instruments using the MODVOLC thermal algorithm detected a single thermal hotspot on the SE side of the island on 7 May. Weak thermal activity was also detected in a satellite image on the E side of the island on 14 May, accompanied by a white gas-and-steam plume that drifted SE (figure 68).

Figure 67. True color satellite images showing a white gas-and-steam plume rising from Kadovar on 28 February 2023 (left) and 30 March 2023 (right) and drifting SE and S, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 68. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) image showing weak thermal activity on the E side of the island, accompanied by a gas-and-steam plume that drifted SE from Kadovar on 14 May 2023. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The 2-km-wide island of Kadovar is the emergent summit of a Bismarck Sea stratovolcano of Holocene age. It is part of the Schouten Islands, and lies off the coast of New Guinea, about 25 km N of the mouth of the Sepik River. Prior to an eruption that began in 2018, a lava dome formed the high point of the andesitic volcano, filling an arcuate landslide scarp open to the south; submarine debris-avalanche deposits occur in that direction. Thick lava flows with columnar jointing forms low cliffs along the coast. The youthful island lacks fringing or offshore reefs. A period of heightened thermal phenomena took place in 1976. An eruption began in January 2018 that included lava effusion from vents at the summit and at the E coast.

Information Contacts: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

San Miguel in El Salvador is a broad, deep crater complex that has been frequently modified by eruptions recorded since the early 16th century and consists of the summit known locally as Chaparrastique. Flank eruptions have produced lava flows that extended to the N, NE, and SE during the 17-19th centuries. The most recent activity has consisted of minor ash eruptions from the summit crater. The current eruption period began in November 2022 and has been characterized by frequent phreatic explosions, gas-and-ash emissions, and sulfur dioxide plumes (BGVN 47:12). This report describes small gas-and-ash explosions during December 2022 through May 2023 based on special reports from the Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN).

Activity has been relatively low since the last recorded explosions on 29 November 2022. Seismicity recorded by the San Miguel Volcano Station (VSM) located on the N flank at 1.7 km elevation had decreased by 7 December. Sulfur dioxide gas measurements taken with DOAS (Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy) mobile equipment were below typical previously recorded values: 300 tons per day (t/d). During December, small explosions were recorded by the seismic network and manifested as gas-and-steam emissions.

Gas-and-ash explosions in the crater occurred during January 2023, which were recorded by the seismic network. Sulfur dioxide values remained low, between 300-400 t/d through 10 March. At 0817 on 14 January a gas-and-ash emission was visible in webcam images, rising just above the crater rim. Some mornings during February, small gas-and-steam plumes were visible in the crater. On 7 March at 2252 MARN noted an increase in degassing from the central crater; gas emissions were constantly observed through the early morning hours on 8 March. During the early morning of 8 March through the afternoon on 9 March, 12 emissions were registered, some accompanied by ash. The last gas-and-ash emission was recorded at 1210 on 9 March; very fine ashfall was reported in El Tránsito (10 km S), La Morita (6 km W), and La Piedrita (3 km W). The smell of sulfur was reported in Piedra Azul (5 km SW). On 16 March MARN reported that gas-and-steam emissions decreased.

Low degassing and very low seismicity were reported during April; no explosions have been detected between 9 March and 27 May. The sulfur dioxide emissions remained between 350-400 t/d; during 13-20 April sulfur dioxide values fluctuated between 30-300 t/d. Activity remained low through most of May; on 23 May seismicity increased. An explosion was detected at 1647 on 27 May generated a gas-and-ash plume that rose 700 m high (figure 32); a decrease in seismicity and gas emissions followed. The DOAS station installed on the W flank recorded sulfur dioxide values that reached 400 t/d on 27 May; subsequent measurements showed a decrease to 268 t/d on 28 May and 100 t/d on 29 May.

Figure 32. Webcam image of a gas-and-ash plume rising 700 m above San Miguel at 1652 on 27 May 2023. Courtesy of MARN.

Geologic Background. The symmetrical cone of San Miguel, one of the most active volcanoes in El Salvador, rises from near sea level to form one of the country's most prominent landmarks. A broad, deep, crater complex that has been frequently modified by eruptions recorded since the early 16th century caps the truncated unvegetated summit, also known locally as Chaparrastique. Flanks eruptions of the basaltic-andesitic volcano have produced many lava flows, including several during the 17th-19th centuries that extended to the N, NE, and SE. The SE-flank flows are the largest and form broad, sparsely vegetated lava fields crossed by highways and a railroad skirting the base of the volcano. Flank vent locations have migrated higher on the edifice during historical time, and the most recent activity has consisted of minor ash eruptions from the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN), Km. 5½ Carretera a Nueva San Salvador, Avenida las Mercedes, San Salvador, El Salvador (URL: http://www.snet.gob.sv/ver/vulcanologia).

Semisopochnoi is located in the western Aleutians, is 20-km-wide at sea level, and contains an 8-km-wide caldera. The three-peaked Mount Young (formerly Cerberus) was constructed within the caldera during the Holocene. Each of these peaks contains a summit crater; the lava flows on the N flank appear younger than those on the S side. The current eruption period began in early February 2021 and has more recently consisted of intermittent explosions and ash emissions (BGVN 47:12). This report updates activity during December 2022 through May 2023 using daily, weekly, and special reports from the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO). AVO monitors the volcano using local seismic and infrasound sensors, satellite data, web cameras, and remote infrasound and lightning networks.

Activity during most of December 2022 was relatively quiet; according to AVO no eruptive or explosive activity was observed since 7 November 2022. Intermittent tremor and occasional small earthquakes were observed in geophysical data. Continuous gas-and-steam emissions were observed from the N crater of Mount Young in webcam images on clear weather days (figure 25). On 24 December, there was a slight increase in earthquake activity and several small possible explosion signals were detected in infrasound data. Eruptive activity resumed on 27 December at the N crater of Mount Young; AVO issued a Volcano Activity Notice (VAN) that reported minor ash deposits on the flanks of Mount Young that extended as far as 1 km from the vent, according to webcam images taken during 27-28 December (figure 26). No ash plumes were observed in webcam or satellite imagery, but a persistent gas-and-steam plume that might have contained some ash rose to 1.5 km altitude. As a result, AVO raised the Aviation Color Code (ACC) to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale) and the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) to Watch (the second highest level on a four-level scale). Possible explosions were detected during 21 December 2022 through 1 January 2023 and seismic tremor was recorded during 30-31 December.

Figure 25. Webcam image of a gas-and-steam plume rising above Semisopochnoi from Mount Young on 21 December 2022. Courtesy of AVO.

Figure 26. Webcam image showing fresh ash deposits (black color) at the summit and on the flanks of Mount Young at Semisopochnoi, extending up to 1 km from the N crater. Image was taken on 27 December 2022. Image has been color corrected. Courtesy of AVO.

During January 2023 eruptive activity continued at the active N crater of Mount Young. Minor ash deposits were observed on the flanks, extending about 2 km SSW, based on webcam images from 1 and 3 January. A possible explosion occurred during 1-2 January based on elevated seismicity recorded on local seismometers and an infrasound signal recorded minutes later by an array at Adak. Though no ash plumes were observed in webcam or satellite imagery, a persistent gas-and-steam plume rose to 1.5 km altitude that might have carried minor traces of ash. Ash deposits were accompanied by periods of elevated seismicity and infrasound signals from the local geophysical network, which AVO reported were likely due to weak explosive activity. Low-level explosive activity was also detected during 2-3 January, with minor gas-and-steam emissions and a new ash deposit that was visible in webcam images. Low-level explosive activity was detected in geophysical data during 4-5 January, with elevated seismicity and infrasound signals observed on local stations. Volcanic tremor was detected during 7-9 January and very weak explosive activity was detected in seismic and infrasound data on 9 January. Weak seismic and infrasound signals were recorded on 17 January, which indicated minor explosive activity, but no ash emissions were observed in clear webcam images; a gas-and-steam plume continued to rise to 1.5 km altitude. During 29-30 January, ash deposits near the summit were observed on fresh snow, according to webcam images.

The active N cone at Mount Young continued to produce a gas-and-steam plume during February, but no ash emissions or explosive events were detected. Seismicity remained elevated with faint tremor during early February. Gas-and-steam emissions from the N crater were observed in clear webcam images on 11-13 and 16 February; no explosive activity was detected in seismic, infrasound, or satellite data. Seismicity has also decreased, with no significant seismic tremor observed since 25 January. Therefore, the ACC was lowered to Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) and the VAL was lowered to Advisory (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) on 22 February.

Gas-and-steam emissions persisted during March from the N cone of Mount Young, based on clear webcam images. A few brief episodes of weak tremor were detected in seismic data, although seismicity decreased over the month. A gas-and-steam plume detected in satellite data extended 150 km on 18 March. Low-level ash emissions from the N cone at Mount Young were observed in several webcam images during 18-19 March, in addition to small explosions and volcanic tremor. The ACC was raised to Orange and the VAL increased to Watch on 19 March. A small explosion was detected in seismic and infrasound data on 21 March.

Low-level unrest continued during April, although cloudy weather often obscured views of the summit; periods of seismic tremor and local earthquakes were recorded. During 3-4 April a gas-and-steam plume was visible traveling more than 200 km overnight; no ash was evident in the plume, according to AVO. A gas-and-steam plume was observed during 4-6 April that extended 400 km but did not seem to contain ash. Small explosions were detected in seismic and infrasound data on 5 April. Occasional clear webcam images showed continuing gas-and-steam emissions rose from Mount Young, but no ash deposits were observed on the snow. On 19 April small explosions and tremor were detected in seismic and infrasound data. A period of seismic tremor was detected during 22-25 April, with possible weak explosions on 25 April. Ash deposits were visible near the crater rim, but it was unclear if these deposits were recent or due to older deposits.

Occasional small earthquakes were recorded during May, but there were no signs of explosive activity seen in geophysical data. Gas-and-steam emissions continued from the N crater of Mount Young, based on webcam images, and seismicity remained slightly elevated. A new, light ash deposit was visible during the morning of 5 May on fresh snow on the NW flank of Mount Young. During 10 May periods of volcanic tremor were observed. The ACC was lowered to Yellow and the VAL to Advisory on 17 May due to no additional evidence of activity.

Geologic Background. Semisopochnoi, the largest subaerial volcano of the western Aleutians, is 20 km wide at sea level and contains an 8-km-wide caldera. It formed as a result of collapse of a low-angle, dominantly basaltic volcano following the eruption of a large volume of dacitic pumice. The high point of the island is Anvil Peak, a double-peaked late-Pleistocene cone that forms much of the island's northern part. The three-peaked Mount Cerberus (renamed Mount Young in 2023) was constructed within the caldera during the Holocene. Each of the peaks contains a summit crater; lava flows on the N flank appear younger than those on the south side. Other post-caldera volcanoes include the symmetrical Sugarloaf Peak SSE of the caldera and Lakeshore Cone, a small cinder cone at the edge of Fenner Lake in the NE part of the caldera. Most documented eruptions have originated from Young, although Coats (1950) considered that both Sugarloaf and Lakeshore Cone could have been recently active.

Information Contacts: Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of a) U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667 USA (URL: https://avo.alaska.edu/), b) Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA, and c) Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA (URL: http://dggs.alaska.gov/).

Ebeko, located on the N end of Paramushir Island in the Kuril Islands, consists of three summit craters along a SSW-NNE line at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Eruptions date back to the late 18th century and have been characterized as small-to-moderate explosions from the summit crater, accompanied by intense fumarolic activity. The current eruption period began in June 2022 and has recently consisted of frequent explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:10). This report covers similar activity during October 2022 through May 2023, based on information from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

Activity during October consisted of explosive activity, ash plumes, and occasional thermal anomalies. Visual data by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk showed explosions producing ash clouds up to 2.1-3 km altitude which drifted E, N, NE, and SE during 1-8, 10, 16, and 18 October. KVERT issued several Volcano Observatory Notices for Aviation (VONA) on 7, 13-15, and 27 October 2022, stating that explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 2.3-4 km altitude and drifted 5 km E, NE, and SE. Ashfall was reported in Severo-Kurilsk (Paramushir Island, about 7 km E) on 7 and 13 October. Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly over the volcano on 15-16 October. Visual data showed ash plumes rising to 2.5-3.6 km altitude on 22, 25-29, and 31 October and moving NE due to constant explosions.

Similar activity continued during November, with explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall occurring. KVERT issued VONAs on 1-2, 4, 6-7, 9, 13, and 16 November that reported explosions and resulting ash plumes that rose to 1.7-3.6 km altitude and drifted 3-5 km SE, ESE, E, and NE. On 1 November ash plumes extended as far as 110 km SE. On 5, 8, 12, and 24-25 November explosions and ash plumes rose to 2-3.1 km altitude and drifted N and E. Ashfall was observed in Severo-Kurilsk on 7 and 16 November. A thermal anomaly was visible during 1-4, 16, and 20 November. Explosions during 26 November rose as high as 2.7 km altitude and drifted NE (figure 45).

Figure 45. Photo of an ash plume rising to 2.7 km altitude above Ebeko on 26 November 2022. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

Explosions and ash plumes continued to occur in December. During 1-2 and 4 December volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk observed explosions that sent ash to 1.9-2.5 km altitude and drifted NE and SE (figure 46). VONAs were issued on 5, 9, and 16 December reporting that explosions generated ash plumes rising to 1.9 km, 2.6 km, and 2.4 km altitude and drifted 5 km SE, E, and NE, respectively. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite imagery on 16 December. On 18 and 27-28 December explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2.5 km altitude and drifted NE and SE. On 31 December an ash plume rose to 2 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure 46. Photo of an explosive event at Ebeko at 1109 on 2 December 2022. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by S. Lakomov, IVS FEB RAS.

Explosions continued during January 2023, based on visual observations by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk. During 1-7 January explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted NE, E, W, and SE. According to VONAs issued by KVERT on 2, 4, 10, and 23 January, explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2-4 km altitude and drifted 5 km N, NE, E, and ENE; the ash plume that rose to 4 km altitude occurred on 10 January (figure 47). Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly during 3-4, 10, 13, 16, 21, 22, and 31 January. KVERT reported that an ash cloud on 4 January moved 12 km NE. On 6 and 9-11 January explosions sent ash plumes to 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and ESE. On 13 January an ash plume rose to 3 km altitude and drifted SE. During 20-24 January ash plumes from explosions rose to 3.7 km altitude and drifted SE, N, and NE. On 21 January the ash plume drifted as far as 40 km NE. During 28-29 and 31 January and 1 February ash plumes rose to 4 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure 47. Photo of a strong ash plume rising to 4 km altitude from an explosive event on 10 January 2023 (local time). Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

During February, explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall were reported. During 1, 4-5 and 7-8 February explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 4.5 km altitude and drifted E and NE; ashfall was observed on 5 and 8 February. On 6 February an explosion produced an ash plume that rose to 3 km altitude and drifted 7 km E, causing ashfall in Severo-Kurilsk. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite data on 8, 9, 13, and 21 February. Explosions on 9 and 12-13 February produced ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted E and NE; the ash cloud on 12 February extended as far as 45 km E. On 22 February explosions sent ash to 3 km altitude that drifted E. During 24 and 26-27 February ash plumes rose to 4 km altitude and drifted E. On 28 February an explosion sent ash to 2.5-3 km altitude and drifted 5 km E; ashfall was observed in Severo-Kurilsk.

Activity continued during March; visual observations showed that explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 3.6 km altitude on 3, 5-7, and 9-12 March and drifted E, NE, and NW. Thermal anomalies were visible on 10, 13, and 29-30 March in satellite imagery. On 18, 21-23, 26, and 29-30 March explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2.8 km altitude and drifted NE and E; the ash plumes during 22-23 March extended up to 76 km E. A VONA issued on 21 March reported an explosion that produced an ash plume that rose to 2.8 km altitude and drifted 5 km E. Another VONA issued on 23 March reported that satellite data showed an ash plume rising to 3 km altitude and drifted 14 km E.

Explosions during April continued to generate ash plumes. On 1 and 4 April an ash plume rose to 2.8-3.5 km altitude and drifted SE and NE. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite imagery during 1-6 April. Satellite data showed ash plumes and clouds rising to 2-3 km altitude and drifting up to 12 km SW and E on 3 and 6 April (figure 48). KVERT issued VONAs on 3, 5, 14, 16 April describing explosions that produced ash plumes rising to 3 km, 3.5 km, 3.5 km, and 3 km altitude and drifting 5 km S, 5 km NE and SE, 72 km NNE, and 5 km NE, respectively. According to satellite data, the resulting ash cloud from the explosion on 14 April was 25 x 7 km in size and drifted 72-104 km NNE during 14-15 April. According to visual data by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk explosions sent ash up to 3.5 km altitude that drifted NE and E during 15-16, 22, 25-26, and 29 April.

Figure 48. Photo of an ash cloud rising to 3.5 km altitude at Ebeko on 6 April 2023. The cloud extended up to 12 km SW and E. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

The explosive eruption continued during May. Explosions during 3-4, 6-7, and 9-10 May generated ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted SW and E. Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly on 3, 9, 13-14, and 24 May. During 12-16, 23-25, and 27-28 May ash plumes rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted in different directions due to explosions. Two VONA notices were issued on 16 and 25 May, describing explosions that generated ash plumes rising to 3 km and 3.5 km altitude, respectively and extending 5 km E. The ash cloud on 25 May drifted 75 km SE.

Thermal activity in the summit crater, occasionally accompanied by ash plumes and ash deposits on the SE and E flanks due to frequent explosions, were visible in infrared and true color satellite images (figure 49).

Figure 49. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) and true color satellite images of Ebeko showing occasional small thermal anomalies at the summit crater on 4 October 2022 (top left), 30 April 2023 (bottom left), and 27 May 2023 (bottom right). On 1 November (top right) ash deposits (light-to-dark gray) were visible on the SE flank. An ash plume drifted NE on 30 April, and ash deposits were also visible to the E on both 30 April and 27 May. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The flat-topped summit of the central cone of Ebeko volcano, one of the most active in the Kuril Islands, occupies the northern end of Paramushir Island. Three summit craters located along a SSW-NNE line form Ebeko volcano proper, at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Blocky lava flows extend west from Ebeko and SE from the neighboring Nezametnyi cone. The eastern part of the southern crater contains strong solfataras and a large boiling spring. The central crater is filled by a lake about 20 m deep whose shores are lined with steaming solfataras; the northern crater lies across a narrow, low barrier from the central crater and contains a small, cold crescentic lake. Historical activity, recorded since the late-18th century, has been restricted to small-to-moderate explosive eruptions from the summit craters. Intense fumarolic activity occurs in the summit craters, on the outer flanks of the cone, and in lateral explosion craters.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Home Reef is a submarine volcano located in the central Tonga islands between Lateiki (Metis Shoal) and Late Island. The first recorded eruption occurred in the mid-19th century, when an ephemeral island formed. An eruption in 1984 produced a 12-km-high eruption plume, a large volume of floating pumice, and an ephemeral island 500 x 1,500 m wide, with cliffs 30-50 m high that enclosed a water-filled crater. Another island-forming eruption in 2006 produced widespread pumice rafts that drifted as far as Australia; by 2008 the island had eroded below sea level. The previous eruption occurred during October 2022 and was characterized by a new island-forming eruption, lava effusion, ash plumes, discolored water, and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 47:11). This report covers discolored water plumes during November 2022 through April 2023 using satellite data.

Discolored plumes continued during the reporting period and were observed in true color satellite images on clear weather days. Satellite images show light green-yellow discolored water extending W on 8 and 28 November 2022 (figure 31), and SW on 18 November. Light green-yellow plumes extended W on 3 December, S on 13 December, SW on 18 December, and W and S on 23 December (figure 31). On 12 January 2023 discolored green-yellow plumes extended to the NE, E, SE, and N. The plume moved SE on 17 January and NW on 22 January. Faint discolored water in February was visible moving NE on 1 February. A discolored plume extended NW on 8 and 28 March and NW on 13 March (figure 31). During April, clear weather showed green-blue discolored plumes moving S on 2 April, W on 7 April, and NE and S on 12 April. A strong green-yellow discolored plume extended E and NE on 22 April for several kilometers (figure 31).

Figure 31. Visual (true color) satellite images showing continued green-yellow discolored plumes at Home Reef (black circle) that extended W on 28 November 2022 (top left), W and S on 23 December 2022 (top right), NW on 13 March 2023 (bottom left), and E and NE on 22 April 2023 (bottom right). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Home Reef, a submarine volcano midway between Metis Shoal and Late Island in the central Tonga islands, was first reported active in the mid-19th century, when an ephemeral island formed. An eruption in 1984 produced a 12-km-high eruption plume, large amounts of floating pumice, and an ephemeral 500 x 1,500 m island, with cliffs 30-50 m high that enclosed a water-filled crater. In 2006 an island-forming eruption produced widespread dacitic pumice rafts that drifted as far as Australia. Another island was built during a September-October 2022 eruption.

Information Contacts: Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Ambae, also known as Aoba, is a large basaltic shield volcano in Vanuatu. A broad pyroclastic cone containing three crater lakes (Manaro Ngoru, Voui, and Manaro Lakua) is located at the summit within the youngest of at least two nested calderas. Periodic phreatic and pyroclastic explosions have been reported since the 16th century. A large eruption more than 400 years ago resulted in a volcanic cone within the summit crater that is now filled by Lake Voui; the similarly sized Lake Manaro fills the western third of the caldera. The previous eruption ended in August 2022 that was characterized by gas-and-steam and ash emissions and explosions of wet tephra (BGVN 47:10). This report covers a new eruption during February through May 2023 that consisted of a new lava flow, ash plumes, and sulfur dioxide emissions, using information from the Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD) and satellite data.

During the reporting period, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a scale of 0-5), which has been in place since December 2021. Activity during October 2022 through March 2023 remained relatively low and mostly consisted of gas-and-steam emissions in Lake Voui. VMGD reported that at 1300 on 15 November a satellite image captured a strong amount of sulfur dioxide rising above the volcano (figure 99), and that seismicity slightly increased. The southern and northern part of the island reported a strong sulfur dioxide smell and heard explosions. On 20 February 2023 a gas-and-ash plume rose 1.3 km above the summit and drifted SSW, according to a webcam image (figure 100). Gas-and-steam and possibly ash emissions continued on 23 February and volcanic earthquakes were recorded by the seismic network.

Figure 99. Satellite image of the strong sulfur dioxide plume above Ambae taken on 15 November 2022. The Dobson Units (DU) exceeded 12. Courtesy of VMGD.

Figure 100. Webcam image of a gas-and-ash plume rising above Ambae at 1745 on 20 February 2023. The plume drifted SSW. Courtesy of VMGD.

During April, volcanic earthquakes and gas-and-steam and ash emissions were reported from the cone in Lake Voui. VMGD reported that activity increased during 5-7 April; high gas-and-steam and ash plumes were visible, accompanied by nighttime incandescence. According to a Wellington VAAC report, a low-level ash plume rose as high as 2.5 km above the summit and drifted W and SW on 5 April, based on satellite imagery. Reports in Saratamata stated that a dark ash plume drifted to the WSW, but no loud explosion was heard. Webcam images from 2100 showed incandescence above the crater and reflected in the clouds. According to an aerial survey, field observations, and satellite data, water was no longer present in the lake. A lava flow was reported effusing from the vent and traveling N into the dry Lake Voui, which lasted three days. The next morning at 0745 on 6 April a gas-and-steam and ash plume rose 5.4 km above the summit and drifted ESE, based on information from VMGD (figure 101). The Wellington VAAC also reported that light ashfall was observed on the island. Intermittent gas-and-steam and ash emissions were visible on 7 April, some of which rose to an estimated 3 km above the summit and drifted E. Webcam images during 0107-0730 on 7 April showed continuing ash emissions. A gas-and-steam and ash plume rose 695 m above the summit crater at 0730 on 19 April and drifted ESE, based on a webcam image (figure 102).

Figure 101. Webcam image showing a gas-and-ash plume rising 5.4 km above the summit of Ambae at 0745 on 6 April 2023. Courtesy of VMGD.

Figure 102. Webcam image showing a gas-and-ash plume rising 695 m above the summit of Ambae at 0730 on 19 April 2023. Courtesy of VMGD.

According to visual and infrared satellite data, water was visible in Lake Voui as late as 24 March 2023 (figure 103). The vent in the caldera showed a gas-and-steam plume drifted SE. On 3 April thermal activity was first detected, accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted W (figure 103). The lava flow moved N within the dry lake and was shown cooling by 8 April. By 23 April much of the water in the lake had returned. Occasional sulfur dioxide plumes were detected by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite that exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions (figure 104).

Figure 103. Satellite images showing both visual (true color) and infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) views on 24 March 2023 (top left), 3 April 2023 (top left), 8 April 2023 (bottom left), and 23 April 2023 (bottom right). In the image on 24 March, water filled Lake Voui around the small northern lake. A gas-and-steam plume drifted SE. Thermal activity (bright yellow-orange) was first detected in infrared data on 3 April 2023, accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted W. The lava flow slowly filled the northern part of the then-dry lake and remained hot on 8 April. By 23 April, the water in Lake Voui had returned. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 104. Images showing sulfur dioxide plumes rising from Ambae on 26 December 2022 (top left), 25 February 2023 (top right), 23 March 2023 (bottom left), and 5 April 2023 (bottom right), as detected by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite. These plumes exceeded at least 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Geologic Background. The island of Ambae, also known as Aoba, is a massive 2,500 km3 basaltic shield that is the most voluminous volcano of the New Hebrides archipelago. A pronounced NE-SW-trending rift zone with numerous scoria cones gives the 16 x 38 km island an elongated form. A broad pyroclastic cone containing three crater lakes (Manaro Ngoru, Voui, and Manaro Lakua) is located at the summit within the youngest of at least two nested calderas, the largest of which is 6 km in diameter. That large central edifice is also called Manaro Voui or Lombenben volcano. Post-caldera explosive eruptions formed the summit craters about 360 years ago. A tuff cone was constructed within Lake Voui (or Vui) about 60 years later. The latest known flank eruption, about 300 years ago, destroyed the population of the Nduindui area near the western coast.

Information Contacts: Geo-Hazards Division, Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD), Ministry of Climate Change Adaptation, Meteorology, Geo-Hazards, Energy, Environment and Disaster Management, Private Mail Bag 9054, Lini Highway, Port Vila, Vanuatu (URL: http://www.vmgd.gov.vu/, https://www.facebook.com/VanuatuGeohazardsObservatory/); Wellington Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Meteorological Service of New Zealand Ltd (MetService), PO Box 722, Wellington, New Zealand (URL: http://www.metservice.com/vaac/, http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/OTH/NZ/messages.html); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Korovin is a stratovolcano located on Atka Island in the central Aleutian Islands; its most recent reported activity ended in 2007. This report summarizes and contains new information on activity from 1998 to 2007 by drawing on information primarily from the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) and their cited publications. Much of the summary takes the form of a table at the end of the report.

Atka volcanic complex. According to Myers and others (2002) Korovin is a part of the 360 km² Atka volcanic complex, found on the northern part of Atka Island. It is the largest modern complex within the central Aleutians (Myers and others, 2002). The ancestral Atka volcano, in the complex, was described as a large shield volcano consisting of basaltic and basaltic andesite flows, which was subsequently surrounded by a series of satellite vents (Myers and others, 2002).

A caldera forming eruption at the Atka shield volcano occurred ~300,000-500,000 years ago, creating a 5-km-diameter caldera. Associated with that event was the eruption of a large dacitic flow, called Big Pink. Regarding the composition of Big Pink, Myers and others (2002) said, "It consists of pumiceous and glassy units but is not associated with any ash flows." After the caldera formation, the volcanic centers of Korovin, Kliuchef, Konia and Sarichef formed. Figure 4 is a topographic map showing the location of these four volcanic centers and the location of the Atka caldera. These structures all comprise the Atka volcanic complex.

Figure 4. Topographical map of the northern part of Atka Island, located in the central Aleutian Islands. The map highlights the locations of the Atka caldera, the Korovin, Kliuchef and Sarichef volcanoes and the Konia vent, which all comprise the Atka volcanic complex. Image created by the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) and U.S Geological Survey (USGS) using BigTopo 7 software and AllTopo 7. Image taken from the AVO website.

Korovin volcano. Korovin is located 21 km NE from the town of Atka (figure 4). It is the largest and tallest volcano of the post-caldera volcanic centers within the Atka volcanic complex. According to Myers and others (2002), Korovin shows little evidence of glaciation, unlike Kliuchef, located ~5 km S of Korovin. Regarding Korovin' edifice and age, Myers and others (2002) say "Its uneroded form suggests the volcano is mostly Holocene in age."

Korovin has a basal diameter of ~7 km and two summit vents located 0.6 km apart (Myers and others, 2002). The NW summit vent has a small crater and is the lower of the two vents. The SE summit has a 1 km wide crater, with steep walls and a depth of several hundred meters (Myers and others, 2002). The SE summit crater sometimes contains a crater lake and is considered Korovin's active crater. Figure 5 is an aerial photo of Korovin, highlighting its two summit vents.

Figure 5. Photograph of Korovin volcano taken from an aircraft flying at 9.1 km altitude on 5 August 2007. The view is oblique and from the N (i.e. looking S). Steam is rising from the active crater (SE crater). The summit of Kliuchef volcano is partially visible at the top of the image; it sits ~5 km S of Korovin. Photograph taken by Burke Mees, Alaska Airlines. Photograph from McGimsey and others (2011).

During the summer of 2004, AVO installed a network of seismic stations throughout the northern part of Atka Island. Data from the network was accessible in March 2005; however, it wasn't until December 2005 that Korovin was considered seismically monitored. On 2 December 2005, Korovin was also officially assigned the Level of Concern Color Code Green after "a sufficient period of background seismicity had been recorded" (McGimsey and others, 2007). Before, AVO had listed Korovin as UA (unassigned) during periods when no significant activity was noted. AVO assigns volcanoes UA when there is no real-time seismic network in the area that can be used to define background levels of seismicity.

In addition to being seismically monitored, Korovin is also monitored through ground-based, aerial, and satellite imagery and photographs. Korovin and its plumes are often photographed by residents of Atka village (figures 6 and 7), which are then sent to the AVO. Figure 8 provides examples of photos of Korovin taken from satellites. Images from figures 6-8 furnish various kinds of evidence, from steaming (i.e. non-eruptive cases, figure 7), ash-bearing plumes (figure 6), and the result of ash-bearing eruptions (ash on the snow surface seen in satellite views, figure 8). Evidence of these kinds is summarized in next section.

Figure 6. Photographs showing the progression of a steam plume that developed over Kovorin around 1900 on 23 February 2005. Plume was observed drifting to the E, and ash was seen falling out near the base of the plume. These photos were taken in Atka village and are courtesy of Louis and Kathleen Nevzoroff. Photos were taken from McGimsey and others (2008).

Figure 7. Photograph of a steam column rising from Korovin on 27 July 2007. Steam was estimated to reach ~215-245 m above the crater. The photo was captured by Louis Nevzoroff from Atka village. Taken from McGimsey and others (2011).

Figure 8. Two satellite photographs showing ash deposits on the upper E flank of Korovin in 2002 (top) and 2004 (bottom). The source of these ash deposits is thought to be intermittent, minor phreatic eruptions through the hot, roiling lake within the SE summit crater of Korovin (McGimsey and others, 2007). Top image was taken on 5 July 2002 and produced by the Image Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center. Bottom image was captured on 4 July 2004 and is an Ikonos near-infrared color composite, copyrighted by Space Imaging LLC. Both images originally published in McGimsey and others (2008).

Activity during 1998-2007. During this interval (table 1), activity ranged from eruptive cases to those that were considered non eruptive.

Activity was often reported to AVO by Atka village residents and pilots in the area. Korovin was also monitored through satellite imagery, when weather conditions were favorable. During this interval, the highest plumes were observed on 30 June 1998 and reached an altitude of ~9.1 km. As activity varied, the Aviation Color Code (ACC), the Volcanic Activity Alert Level (VAAL), and the Level of Concern Color Code (LCCC) were changed to reflect Korovin's activity status.

AVO presented general information on reported activity from 1998-2007 on their website. For each of the events within this interval, AVO cited information from several sources, some of which included the following: McGimsey and others (2003), which discussed activity in 1998; McGimsey and others (2008), which discussed 2005 activity; Neal and others (2009) that looked at 2006 activity; and McGimsey and others (2011) that detailed 2007 activity. AVO also referenced several past Bulletin reports, which highlighted Korovin activity (BGVN 23:06, and 31:02).

Our summary in table 1 summarizes the following: (1) the basic information on Korovin's activity from the AVO website and (2) additional information from some of AVO's cited references. Greater detail can be found on AVO's website and in their cited references.

Table 1. Condensed descriptions of key events during both eruptive and non-eruptive periods during 1987-2007. The data sources are stated in the table. The Remarks column generally contains the following: (1) "AVO:" This presents a very brief synopsis of the summary that AVO provides on each of their Korovin reported activity web pages (as accessed in May 2015). (2) Below that, we present a succinct timeline of Korovin activity created using on information found in some of AVO's cited references. The 2005 activity is in two sections to highlight different periods of activity during that year; 2006-2007 is considered one period of activity. Where AVO cited references are augmented by past Bulletin reports, the information has been [bracketed]. Times are all local, unless otherwise stated. The term 'resident(s)' refers to resident(s) of Atka village. Abbreviations used are as follows: Village Public Safety Officer, VPSO; above sea level, a.s.l., and Interferometric synthetic aperture radar, InSAR; Aviation Color Code, ACC; Volcanic Activity Alert Level, VAAL; Level of Concern Color Code, LCCC; unassigned activity (UA); and satellite-based Ozone Monitoring Instrument, OMI.

References. Alaska Volcano Observatory, the U.S. Geological Survey, BigTopo 7, and AllTopo 7, Topographic shaded relief image of the northern part of Atka Island (Image 2906), accessed on 14 April 2005, (URL: http://www.avo.alaska.edu/images/image.php?id=2906).

McGimsey, R. G., Neal, C. A., and Girina, O., 2003, 1998 volcanic activity in Alaska and Kamchatka: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 03-0423, 35 pp, (URL: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-423/).

McGimsey, R.G., Neal, C.A., Dixon, J.P., and Ushakov, S., 2008, 2005 Volcanic activity in Alaska, Kamchatka, and the Kurile Islands: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5269, 94 pp, (URL: http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5269/).

McGimsey, R.G., Neal, C.A., Dixon, J.P., Malik, N., and Chibisova, M., 2011, 2007 Volcanic activity in Alaska, Kamchatka, and the Kurile Islands: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010-5242, 110 pp, (URL: http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5242/).

Myers, J.D., Marsh, B. D., Frost, C. D. and Linton, J.A., 2002, Petrologic constraints on the spatial distribution of crustal magma chambers, Atka Volcanic Center, central Aleutian arc, Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol. 143, issue 5, pp. 567-586, DOI 10.1007/s00410-002-0356-7 (URL: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00410-002-0356-7).

Neal, C.A., McGimsey, R.G., Dixon, J.P., Manevich, A., and Rybin, A., 2009, 2006 Volcanic activity in Alaska, Kamchatka, and the Kurile Islands: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008-5214, 102 pp, (URL: http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5214/).

Geologic Background. The Atka Volcanic Complex consists of a central shield and Pleistocene caldera with several post-caldera volcanoes. A major dacitic explosive eruption accompanied formation of the caldera about 500,000 to 300,000 years ago. The most prominent of the post-caldera stratovolcanoes are Kliuchef and Sarichef, both of which may have been active in historical time. Sarichef has a symmetrical profile, but the less eroded Kliuchef is the source of most if not all historical eruptions. Kliuchef may have been active on occasion simultaneously with Korovin volcano to the north. Hot springs and fumaroles are located on the flanks of Mount Kliuchef and in a glacial valley SW of Kliuchef. Korovin, at the NE tip of Atka Island, is the most frequently active volcano of the complex, and contains a double summit with two craters. The NW summit has a small crater, but the 1-km-wide crater of the SE cone has an open cylindrical vent of widely variable depth that sometimes contains a crater lake or a high magma column. A fresh-looking cinder cone lies on the flank of the partially dissected Konia volcano, located on the SE flank of the dominantly basaltic Korovin. Some late-stage dacitic lava flows are present on both Korovin and Konia.

Information Contacts: Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of a) U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667, USA (URL: http://www.avo.alaska.edu/), b) Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA, and c) Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA; Game McGimsey, AVO.

Our last report on Etna covered activity through 31 December 2013 (BGVN 38:09) and described activity in terms of a series of paroxysms, including the emergence of a new South East Crater (NSEC; see figure 147 in BGVN 38:09).

This report covers subsequent activity from 1 January-13 June 2014 and summarizes first-hand accounts by Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV-Catania). The key events of this reporting interval were ongoing emissions of E-directed lavas from a vent area on the lower E flank of the NSEC. That same vent area at NSEC generated an unusual, reddish, ground-hugging cloud associated with a landslide on 11 February. It left a swath of pyroclastic deposits mapped for over 2 km.

A sketch map shows lava and pyroclastic emissions from October 2013 through February 2014 (figure 148). It thus gives an overview of Etna's products during the first part of this reporting interval (January through February 2014). Flows on figure 148 emitted during 2013 were discussed in the previous report (see map, figure 147, in BGVN 38:09). During January-February 2014 lava flows vented in an area on the NSEC's lower E flank. That same general area was the source of a landslide and pyroclastic deposits emplaced on 11 February 2014 (shaded in light tan with triangles or dots conveying coarser and finer deposits). The deposits were laid down by fast-moving, reddish, ground-hugging emissions.

Figure 148. Map of Etna's summit area highlighting volcanic deposition during the interval October 2013 through 11 February 2014. Lavas of October 2013-December 2014 are shown in pale green; lavas of 14-16 December 2013, in light blue; lavas of 29 December 2013, in blue; lavas of 22 January-February 2014, in red. The 11 February 2014 pyroclastic deposits (tan) as mapped here stretch ~2.3 km W from their source at a depression (inside the hachured red line) on the lower E side of NSEC. These pyroclastic deposits are mapped into two adjacent map units on the basis of grain size. Both the pyroclastic deposits and the lava flows descended the steep W headwall of the broad valley called Valle del Bove. The valley's headwall area extends to ~2-3 km to the SE of NSEC before the slope gradient drops and the slope starts to make the transition to the valley floor. Courtesy of INGV (Etna Cartographic Laboratory).

Figure 148 also shows the important vent on NSEC's E flank (red hachured circle). Abbreviations for other summit vents: (SEC (Southeast crater), BN (Boca Nuova), VOR (Voragine), NEC (North East crater), as similarly defined in previous Bulletin reports). These other vents issued little in the way of deposits as late as the end of February 2014 (based on the map) and INGV reporting did not disclose much in the way of other deposits either.

Activity during January 2014. INGV reported that during 31 December 2013-1 January 2014 lava flows from a vent located on the NSEC continued to travel toward the N part of the Valle de Bove; the lava flows had been active since activity resumed on 29 December 2013. A 1 January web camera photo near midday showed a dense black plume emerging from NSEC. By 3 January 2014 the lava effusions stopped. Meanwhile at NEC during 4-13 January 2014 this vent released pulsating and almost continuous reddish ash emissions. Tremor remained at low amplitude into at least late January.

On the evening of 21 January after ~20 days absence (since an increase seen during 29-31 December 2013), strombolian emissions returned at NSEC. These emissions were weak. Sparse ash also discharged, barely rising over NSEC's rim.

Late on 22 January a small lava flow emerged from the vent on NSEC's upper E flank advancing over a few hundred meters in a few hours. This was the start of the lava flow shown in red on figure 148. Strombolian explosions ejected glowing pyroclasts onto NSEC's flanks. The explosions declined early on 23 January, and the lava flow stopped advancing. At 0105 that day a small puff emerging from the E base of the cone heralded the start of a new W-trending lava flow. On 26 January, strombolian emissions occurred and an ash plume drifted E. By evening the strombolian eruption declined in terms of both the amount of ash emitted and the eruptive intensity. The lava flow (red, figure 148) had by this time reached ~4 km long. Also, a new lava flow advanced on top of the earlier one.

Regarding NSEC, INGV reported that on 27-28 January it underwent a gradual but steady decrease of activity. Lava flows from two vents at the E base of the NSEC cone continued to effuse at a very low rate. Weather conditions almost entirely prevented visual and optical observations during early on 30 January until the evening of 3 February.

Activity during February 2014. Late on 3 February INGV noted a lava flow from one of the NSEC's vents along its E base remained active and had extended several hundred meters. Almost continuous ash emissions from NSEC began at about 1300 on 4 February and continued into the night; about 5-10 ash puffs were separated by steam emissions. Ash plumes drifted E. After sunset, jets of hot material were observed rising 100 m above the crater rim. At 2000 the ash emissions and injection of incandescent material ceased, but the lava flow continued and reached 1 km long. Into 5 February, lava escaped from one or two vents at the NSEC cone's E margin. Lava flows advanced several kilometers to the base of the Valle del Bove's W slope. On 6 February ash emissions ceased. Nevertheless, small Strombolian explosions ejected incandescent pyroclastic material 100 m above the crater. On 7 February Strombolian explosions ejected material onto the flanks of the NSEC; the next day ash puffs were observed.

INGV noted that the ongoing activity at NSEC that began 21 January 2014 represents a notable deviation from the behavior of the NSEC over the last three years. In the context of the last few decades of Etna activity, they viewed this as a completely normal eruptive occurrence. It is similar to emissive activity from January to March 2001 on the N flank of the old SEC, and other episodes of long duration observed in the past.

During 9-10, February activity continued to be characterized by Strombolian activity, periodic ash emissions, and advancing lava flows. On 9 February venting shifted to NSEC's W portion and included ash emissions. On 10 February at least one new eruptive vent opened upslope of the vents feeding the active flows.

At 0707 on 11 February a large, dense, reddish-brown ash cloud discharged from a lower E-flank vent area at NSEC (figure 149). Rather than rising much distance, the ash-charged cloud moved rapidly downslope. The cloud consisted of a dense hot avalanche or landslide that INGV also said looked very much like a pyroclastic flow. The ash laden cloud took about a minute to reach the base of the W wall of the Valle del Bove only stopping after it encountered less steep terrain. After this event, reddish brown ash emissions continued. The mapped portions of the 11 February pyroclastic deposits are shown on figure 148, but the ash cloud itself continued farther downslope (figure 149).

Figure 149. The reddish ash cloud generated the morning of 11 February 2014 associated with a landslide and related eruption in the active vent area on the NSEC's E flank (upper left). This is a view from ~11 km E of NSEC (at Sant'Alfio, located on the Valle del Bove floor ~5.5 km from the closest point to the coast). Photo taken from INGV reporting on the 11 February event. They credit the photo to Casa di paglia Felcerossa-Permacultura.

Prior to the 11 February 2014 eruption, the area of collapse at the NSEC vent had contained unstable heated rock. In the past weeks, multiple vents in this area had been active. One vent near the E rim of the vent area was hot enough to glow. The presence of molten rock (e.g., magma and lava), hot gases, and the glowing vent were interpreted by INGV to have contributed to destabilizing the area that failed during the eruption.

Although the mapped area is smaller, the reddish cloud of 11 February expanded as it advanced over the lava field of 2008-2009, covering it almost entirely, and reaching the Valle del Bove with a front about 1 km wide. Shortly after reaching the level ground at the base of the W wall of the Valle del Bove, the flow stopped in an area about 3.5-4 km away from source vent. A cloud of ash rose up and drifted NE.

Lava flows also continued to erupt on 11 February. Those were associated with bluish clouds. During and after the 11 February event, the NSEC still generated persistent strombolian eruptions accompanied by small ash emissions. At 1800 on February 11 this was in progress, showing no change compared to the activity of the last days. During 11-12 February the amplitude of tremor remained slightly higher than normal but it dropped back to normal levels after that, and the average amplitudes generally remained at modest levels through mid-March.

NSEC's strombolian emissions slightly intensified on 12 February. An unstable part of the lower E flank of the vent that collapsed on 11 February continued to produce small collapses and reddish ash clouds. Lava continued to flow from the cone towards the Valle del Bove, and by nightfall had reached the base of the steep W wall of the valley. It then advanced on the flat land to the N of Mount Centenari (figure 148).

Strombolian activity continued during 12-28 February. Lava emissions declined, but produced lava flows a few hundred meters long. Lava emissions continued also from an effusive vent from the interior of the portion of the recess formed 11 February, which continued through 17 February. On 15 February an explosion generated a vapor-and-ash plume, and was then followed by more explosions from the same area. Later on 15 February a small lava flow emerged from a new vent at the N base of the NSEC cone, which traveled 100 m towards the W wall of the Valle del Bove, and remained active the next day. During 16-17 February strombolian activity continued to produce small quantities of ash. Lava continued to flow from the vent at the base of the cone.

Activity during March 2014. During 1-10 March generally weak though persistent strombolian activity and diffuse ash emissions continued at NSEC. Tremor was generally low. An unstable part of the lower E flank of the cone that collapsed on 11 February (figure 150) continued to produce small collapses with reddish ash clouds, and thermal anomalies. Lava continued to flow from a vent on the lower part of the NSEC cone to the W wall of the Valle del Bove, and during 2-3 March the flows reached the base of the wall (figure 150).

Figure 150. Glowing Etna lava flows seen from the SE on the evening of 3 March 2014. The flows continued to vent from the lower flank of the NSEC cone. The vent was in the same area associated with the collapse of 11 February 2014. Photo credit Turi Caggegi.

After several days of lava emissions from a vent on the lower part of the NSEC cone, during 5-6 March lava flows originated only from a higher vent and traveled 1.5 km towards the lower part of the W wall of the Valle del Bove. The lava flow fed by the vent on the inside of the unstable lower portion of the lower E flank remained active on 5 March. A second flow was fed a few hundred meters downslope , with an active front on the upper margin of the 2008-2009 lava field (directly to the NE, in the direction of Monte Simone and following the lava flow of 30-31 December 2013). On 8 March BN (Bocca Nuova) issued sporadic emissions of hot material with small amounts of volcanic ash.

INGV reported that during 12-25 March strombolian activity with occasional diffuse ash emissions continued from one or two vents at the base of Etna's NSEC cone. Lava flows originating from a vent on the upper wall traveled towards the upper part of the W wall of the Valle del Bove. Strombolian activity intensified during 18-22 March, producing more ash, and then decreased; no ash was emitted on 23 March. Lava flows originating from a vent on the upper wall traveled towards the upper part of the W wall of the Valle del Bove and also NE in the direction of Monte Simone. Tremor amplitude rose slightly on 24 March but declined on 26 March to low values similar to those seen prior to the episode of persistent NSEC eruptions that began on 21 January.

Strombolian activity at the NSEC cone ceased during the night of 26-27 March, after 64 days of persistent activity. Lava emissions from the lower side of the NSEC significantly decreased; on the evening of 28 March a small lava flow continued to advance but had stopped and was cooling the next day.

Activity during April 2014. During the night of 1-2 April emissions of minor lava flows from the NE base at NSEC cone decreased. Strombolian activity gradually intensified during the evening of 2 April, along with tremor, and then both decreased. Some collapses from the E flank of the NSEC cone took place that morning. Poor weather conditions prevented views of Etna for a few days, but by 7 April the lava flows had ceased and strombolian activity had sharply declined. No activity was observed on 8 April.

No eruptive activity at Etna was observed thereafter until the early hours of 22 April, when sporadic and weak strombolian activity resumed at the NSEC and continued for the next few days. Some explosions ejected incandescent pyroclastic material out of the crater and onto the upper S and SE flanks of the cone. A few small collapses occurred on the cone's unstable E flank. Late in the evening on 30 April the frequency and intensity of Strombolian explosions slightly increased. Degassing at the NEC also increased and thermal anomalies were detected by a camera.

Activity during May-13 June 2014. During the night of 2-3 May INGV attributed incandescence to weak, high-temperature gas emissions or strombolian explosions or both. The activity intensified on 4 May; some of the explosions ejected incandescent pyroclastic material high onto NSEC's S and SE flanks. Although tremor amplitude generally remained at low levels since early April; tremor on 1 May registered in episodes (banded tremor). Weak strombolian activity at NSEC continued through at least 10 June and no noteworthy eruptions were highlighted through 13 June.

Geologic Background. Mount Etna, towering above Catania on the island of Sicily, has one of the world's longest documented records of volcanism, dating back to 1500 BCE. Historical lava flows of basaltic composition cover much of the surface of this massive volcano, whose edifice is the highest and most voluminous in Italy. The Mongibello stratovolcano, truncated by several small calderas, was constructed during the late Pleistocene and Holocene over an older shield volcano. The most prominent morphological feature of Etna is the Valle del Bove, a 5 x 10 km caldera open to the east. Two styles of eruptive activity typically occur, sometimes simultaneously. Persistent explosive eruptions, sometimes with minor lava emissions, take place from one or more summit craters. Flank vents, typically with higher effusion rates, are less frequently active and originate from fissures that open progressively downward from near the summit (usually accompanied by Strombolian eruptions at the upper end). Cinder cones are commonly constructed over the vents of lower-flank lava flows. Lava flows extend to the foot of the volcano on all sides and have reached the sea over a broad area on the SE flank.

Information Contacts: Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Sezione di Catania, Piazza Roma 2, 95123 Catania, Italy (URL: http://www.ct.ingv.it).

This Bulletin report covers from June 1995 through February 2015. The interval's major volcanic event began on 23 November 2014 with the eruption of lavas. Fogo continued erupting through 8 February 2015, when the Observatório Vulcanológico de Cabo Verde (OVCV) stated that the eruption ceased. The last eruption ended in May 1995 (BGVN 20:11). There was limited information for the multi-year interval between that eruption and the one in 2014. The data for this report came from two key sources: OVCV (generally posted on their Facebook page) and Fogo News (numerous articles). Although the island of Fogo is ~25 km across and the greatest population density resides in coastal cities (red labels, figure 4), a small population also resides in the summit caldera where the venting took place. The spreading lava from the 2014 eruption covered ~4 km² but did not escape the caldera. A pre-eruption satellite image (figure 5) labels villages within Fogo's summit caldera (Cha caldera). The intracaldera cone Pico (Pico do Fogo) is also the highest point on the island. The villages of Portela and Bangaeira sat 4-5 km NW of Pico and had a collective population of ~1,000 residents in 2009. Lavas overrode both these villages during the 2014 eruption and buried the main N-S road across the caldera. Later maps and images show various aspects of the intra-caldera lavas.

Figure 4. (Upper right) Index map showing Cape Verde islands with respect to the W edge of Africa and highlighting the island of Fogo (in black rectangle). (Below) Map of the island of Fogo showing some key towns and political subdivisions. Taken from Copernicus (2015).

Figure 5. Image of Fogo's caldera captured by the Advanced Land Imager on NASA's EO-1 satellite on 10 June 2009. The summit area (Pico) is engulfed on the W by an 8-km-wide caldera (Cha caldera). The caldera's W crater wall, the headwall of a massive E-facing lateral-collapse structure, towers 1 km above the crater floor. At its base within the caldera lay the villages of Portela and Bangaeira, which were severely damaged if not destroyed by the 2014 eruption. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory-1 Team (NASA image created by Jesse Allen, using EO-1 ALI data provided by the NASA EO-1 Team; caption partially derived from information provided by Holli Riebeek).

Overview on the 2014 eruption. The 23 November 2014 eruption started at 1000 local time (LT). In years prior to the eruption, the CO₂ fluxes remained low and fairly stable. During the interval from 23 November 2009 to April 2014, background CO₂ typically stayed well below 150 tons per day (t/d). During the March-November 2014 interval emissions increased to fluxes of ~327 t/d. Residents felt earthquakes the night before the eruption. Lava streamed from a fissure in the caldera on Pico's outer WSW flank. The initial fissure vent emerged in a location near to the vent of the 1995 eruption, though materials apparently began to vent at multiple points along the fissure. Most of the available photos showed strombolian and perhaps vulcanian activity that fed lava flows (figures 6 and 7), but news reports also indicated explosions, lava fountains, and ash emissions. An ash plume from the eruption was visible 90 km W, at the capital, Praia, on the neighboring island of Santiago (Farge, 2014). Orders were issued to evacuate the villages of Portela and Bangaeira (Caesar, 2014), and to evacuate the Parque Natural de Fogo, a large park covering much of the central part of the island (Fogo News).

Figure 6. A press photo taken on 28 November 2014 illustrating strombolian activity with spatter emerging from the fissure vent. Note the edifice constructed around the fissure vent area, the lava flowing around this edifice, and the rising plume. Courtesy of Boston.com; photo by Saulo Montrond (Reuters).

Figure 7. Mário Moreira, a geophysicist at the Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, Portugal, provided photos illustrating aspects of the 2014 Fogo eruption. (A) The fissure at the base of the Pico cone releasing a thin plume at an unstated time. (B) As seen at 2000 LT on 5 December 2014, an advancing molten-surfaced lava flow. There is a building with peaked roof in the foreground of the photo, providing an aid to gauge the scale of the lava flow. (C) Several vents opened along the original fissure, which developed a crater-shaped morphology. Courtesy of Mário Moreira.

On 24 November, according to the Toulouse Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), a plume from Fogo mainly composed of sulfur dioxide extended over 220 km NW at ~9 km altitude. Lower altitude clouds contained ash.

An overview of the lava flow dispersal from the eruption is presented below, as a map with emplacement dates depicting the advancing flows (figure 8). The map was created on 25 December 2014, comparatively late in the eruption. The original map has been cropped to emphasize the lava flows, thus leaving Pico outside the area of view. At the scale of this map the summit would reside at the apex of the curving contours located along map's E margin (a spot off the map to the right and in the midst of the words "09 Dec.") The fissure vent resides in the spur of lava trending SW from the margin of Pico cone. The late stage advances seen in figure 8 (darkest red colors) roughly tripled the length of the W-trending lobe. A video on the Azores Volcanological & Geothermal Observatory website showed news footage of lava flows, which were steep-sided, rough-surfaced, and perhaps ~2-10 m high in some scenes.

Figure 8. A map produced on 25 December 2015 that summarizes the emplacement chronology of the Fogo lava flows. The dates of the flow mapping range from 29 November 2014 to 24 December 2012 and are keyed by color. Dates in the legend reflect estimates made based on satellite imagery. The data was not validated with in situ observations. The N-S distance between the horizontal lines across the map are ~2.5 km. Cropped and with simplified legend after Copernicus (2015).

That web page, and one called Culture Volcan presented an annotated still photo (figure 9) that highlighted the three lobes and the eruptive source. A key point is near the terminal end of the W lobe and the foot of the headwall, where there was a rural agricultural area with houses called Ilhéu de Losna. Culture Volcan noted damaged to farms and other infrastructure in that area. A photo not shown here showed an impressive pahoehoe lava flow that appeared to be crossing one of the farms.

Figure 9. An annotated photo of the Cha caldera, with white dashes to accentuate flow margins, taken looking ~NNE along the curving headwall. Portela and Bangaeira appear in the distance. The photo was posted on 27 December 2014. The labels are in Portuguese and translate as follows: Cha caldera headwall or rampart ("Rempart de la Caldera de Cha"); N ("nord"); S ("sud"); W ("oust"); lava flow ("coulee"), eruptive fissure ("Fissure eruptive"). Photo credit to Montrond Theo (Involcan). Credit for editing and annotations to Culture Volcan. Posted as on the website of the Azores Volcanological & Geothermal Observatory.

An OVCV report noted that the eruption ended 8 February 2015 (a total of 77 days); and some ash columns approached 6 km in altitude. They estimated some lava flows grew as thick as 18-20 m.

Silva and others (2015) discussed the 2014 eruption chronology and presented the most complete (though still preliminary) picture of lava flow advance rates. The eruption vented on the E flank of the "1995 Pico Novo vent with the appearance of four eruptive vents" discharging gases, pyroclastic rocks, and lava. The N-directed lobe of lava associated with the destruction of Portela village included both aa and pahoehoe types. These advanced with average speeds of 1-3 to 8-10 m/hour with some cases of up to 20 m/hour (~0.3 m/min). At the vent, an initial hawaiian stage of fissure eruptions gave way to a later strombolian stage. The vent's main crater grew by the coalescence of small craters; three small vents released aa lava flows. One or two lava tubes developed. The site emitted loud explosions and strong rumbling.

A pahoehoe lava flow developed along the far end of the W-directed lobe (in the Ilhéu de Losna region, figure 9). It advanced at an average speed of 0.5 m/min. The flow here buried vineyards, other crops, and houses.

Uni-CV (Universidade de Cabo Verde) also reported that during 30-31 December, a gas-and-ash plume extended to 700-800 m above the cone drifting N and tephra was ejected 30-40 m above the vent's cone. The lava front near Ilhéu de Losna (to the W of Pico do Fogo) had stopped, while the N-directed lava front near the N part of the villages continued to flow slowly over roads and buildings. Uni-CV noted that the temperatures of the lava fronts gradually decreased. According to Uni-CV (2015), during 1-11 January 2015, dense plumes rose to 400-1,500 m above the cone and tephra rose 200-400 m above the vent. During 8-12 January, explosions were followed by noises or bangs. On 12 January 2015, continuous explosions began at 0945, growing stronger, followed by eruptive pulses. A dense, dark plume rose 2 km in height and drifted E.

On 3 February 2015 OVCV scientists saw a bluish white discoloration of the air in the caldera, which they judged as the presence of ash. Explosions were heard 1 to 4 times per minute. The ash plume rose to 0.8-1.0 km above the vent area. Rock and spatter discharged. Beginning at 1310 on 6 February 2015 scientists heard explosions at a rate of 2 to 3 per minute. The observers saw eruptive columns of brownish color that consisted of gases, tephra, and spatter that rose to 400-600 m in height above the vent. During 1345 to 1545, explosions intensified, sending out larger pyroclasts, and eruptive columns achieved heights above the crater of 1.2-1.5 km. The clouds blew NE and formed dense ash clouds. Around 1700 there occurred intervals of lowered intensity lasting a few minutes. A more energetic episode took place at 1745 on the 6th.

The 9 March 2015 report on the Uni-CV website contained numerous photos and thermal infrared images from fieldwork during early to middle February 2014. The photos showed numerous views of near vent lavas highlighting both their varied surface textures (from highly fragmental to smooth) along with temperatures up to ~700°C (measured on the basis of emissivity, atmospheric attenuation, and various inputs and assumptions in the processessing in the FLIR-brand camera). A satellite view highlights the 2014 vent area and its location perhaps ten's of meters E of the 1995 vent. Both the 2014 and 1995 vents trended NE. Other field photos revealed elongate cones constructed around the 2014 fissure vents. The inner rims of those vent-engulfing cones were encrusted with sulfur.

OVCV reported that on 8 February the eruption at Fogo had ended. SO₂ emissions were almost undetectable on 8 February and continued to remain so at least through 11 February. During that period, the lava front had not moved, and only minor fumarolic activity was present at the edge of the new crater. Lava flow temperatures had dropped.

News, human impacts, and photos revealing diverse lava flow morphology. According to Fogo News, by 25 November the lava flow, which was more than 4 km in length, had destroyed much of Portella, Bangaeira and the park headquarters. Furthermore, the local (Fogo island) airport closed. Lava destroyed utility poles, hindering communications. Fogo News added that the Cape Verde government responded to the situation by creating a crisis cabinet.

On 30 November, the eruption, although quieter for a few days, resumed at dawn, according to Agencia Lusa (2014). Lava also closed the only alternative route between the Parque Natural de Fogo and the village of Portela. Travelling at ~20 m per hour, the flow destroyed dozens of homes, a large area of agricultural land, and the museum of the Parque.

A Fogo News story noted that by 2 December, the lava flow passing through Portela had destroyed the primary school, the Pedra Brabo hotel, and several additional houses. After 24 hours of remaining stagnant, the flow began again on 2 December, reportedly moving at ~9 m per hour. Furthermore, ashfall over pastures affected local livestock, especially goats. Ash emissions caused the cancellation of some flights from the island. The news also mentioned that on 6 December the lava flow rate had increased. By 8 December, the article said that about 90% of Bangaeira and 95% of Portela had been overtaken by the lava flow. After moving through the towns, the lava-flow front was ~300 m wide.

Based on a Fogo News article, Fogo volcanism decreased on 9 December. The lava flow stopped ~3.5 km from the settlement of Fernão Gomes (~5 km directly N of Pico do Fogo and just short of a steep downward slope to the towns of Cutelo Alto and Fonsaco, on the NE coast of Fogo). Gas and ash emissions also decreased and were mostly absent by 14 December. Even though the fissure vent's output was apparently low, the remaining buildings in the town of Bangaeira were overtaken by lava.

Fogo News noted that by 10 December volcanic ash had contaminated many water sources and ash had reached N of Sao Felipe on the W coast of Fogo, ~17 km SW of Pico do Fogo. As a result, the government flew in bottles of potable water.

The lava flow morphology as well as the societal impact is revealed below through a tiny sampling of available photos. The BBC (2014), and many news outlets prepared galleries on the Fogo eruption. Martin Rietze (2014) and Richard Roscoe documented portions of the eruption. Chrys Chrystello (2014) uploaded two videos to Youtube. The first one, posted on 24 November 2014, depicts plumes released from fissures and people evacuating their homes. The second one, posted on 26 November, showed evacuation, the movement of the lava flow across the caldera, and activity at night. Not depicted here are several photos and videos posted by OVCV (on its Facebook page).

Figure 10 shows three press photos posted online on 2 December. According to the captions, Portela village residents sat in the foreground, meaning that they watched as the lava flow advanced over their community. They also tried to salvage materials from the destroyed infrastructure.

Figure 10. Three press photos relating to the human dimensions of the Fogo eruption. The buildings, about to be destroyed, also give a sense of the size and scope of the hackly surfaced lavas. The three photos were undated, but were posted online on 2 December 2014. Courtesy of Boston.com. Photo credit (all photos) to Joao Relvas/EPA.

Judging from the photos in figure 10, the thicker areas of lava stood higher than single story buildings. In these photos the encroaching lava front and the flow tops both appear strongly fragmental in nature, composed of blocks of diverse sizes. The lower photo in figure 10 suggests that the depicted flow front had angles of repose up to on the order of ~45 degrees. In the various photos of figure 10, the molten component of the lava flow, is not clearly apparent on the flow's exposed surface or sprouting out of the fragmental flow.

Figure 11, by contrast, depicts a compact lava flow that is clearly composed of a comparatively thin body that came right through the wall and large door in this building. The flow surface, in this case, is nearly devoid of fragmental material and the comparatively smooth upper surfaces contrast with those in the lava flows seen in figure 10. The article also noted a lack of injuries or deaths from the eruption, despite the obvious catastrophic destruction

Figure 11. A photo from the Fogo eruption. Smith (2014) stated that, "Lava began to ravage the only building left standing in the village of Portela on the island of Fogo, Cape Verde." Photo credit: Nicolau Centeio/EPA.

Although, there were no fatalities, 1,076 people were displaced by the 2014 eruption. Map Action (2014), a UK-based charity, issued a map of the Fogo refugee situation (figure 12). They said that, by 11 December, the lava had covered a few square kilometers and that there were three Internally Displaced Person (IDP) shelters existing in areas well outside the caldera.

Figure 12. Map stating conditions as of 11 December 2014. By this point, Portela and Bangaeira had both been invaded by the lava flows. The vent producing the lava is the blue square in the center; the Pico cone's summit area is shown as a red triangle. The lava flow during 29 November to 7 December (light orange slashed region) reached ~5 km in length. During 8-9 December, an area of new lava flows stretched another ~1 km in length (darker orange slashed region). There were three official IDP shelters (blue tents): Mosteiros (169 inhabitants), Achada das Furnas (404 inhabitants), and Monte Grande (360 inhabitants). Source: Map Action (2014).

In an assessment report that was released on 16 December 2014, Relief Web said that: "A volcan[ic] eruption [on] Fogo Island, in Cabo [Cape] Verde, began on 23 November and continues as of 16 December 2014. The eruption has had direct impact on the people living in Chã das Caldeiras, the volcano crater area. 1076 people have been evacuated from the area, of which 929 have been relocated in temporary accommodation [centers] and in houses built in the aftermath of the 1995 eruption, while the remaining are sheltered in host families' homes. The affected people are a predominantly rural community, whose subsistence largely depends on agriculture and livestock. As of 16 December, national authorities report that lava has destroyed over 230 buildings, including the national park headquarters, wine and jam production facilities, a primary school, a hotel, churches, 100% of Portela and Bangaeira infrastructure, as well as more than 429 hectares [4.29 km²] of land, of which 120 hectares [1.2 km²] were agricultural land, resulting in great material and economic loss for the affected people and leaving many without a source of income."

During March 2015 online news sources showed residents in the process of road construction and building excavation.

Technical data. The average daily value of carbon dioxide fluxes at Fogo from 23 November 2009 through 2014 was compiled by four groups (figure 13). The fluxes steadily increased during the interval. Values were typically well below 150 tons per day (t/d) and had a long-term trend near 117 t/d. In March 2014, fluxes increased to 327 metric tons per day (t/d). The CO₂ fluxes wavered and reached a high of ~350 t/d by a few days before the eruption. According to OVCV, the increase in CO₂ suggested that pressure in Fogo's volcanic hydrothermal system had escalated, and that an eruption would soon occur.

Figure 13. Diffuse CO2 fluxes at Fogo in metric tons per day (t/d) from 23 November 2009 to 23 November 2014. The red arrow depicts the date of the eruption ("Erupção"), 23 November 2014. The computation of the blue errors bars and the measurement techniques were unspecified (although similar measurements for late November behavior noted below stemmed from mini-DOAS measurements). Courtesy of OVCV, Uni-CV, Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (INVOLCAN), and Tenerife con Cabo Verde (joint between Tenerife, Canary Islands and Cape Verde).

Soil-gas radon measurements were taken during 20-21 April 2013 by project MAKAVOL (which is run jointly by the government of Tenerife, Canary Islands and the University of Cape Verde [Uni-CV]). According to the first measurements from the geochemical station FOGO-1 in Cha caldera, the soil-gas radon (²²²Rn) emissions were in the range of 20-160 Bq/m³, only slightly more than the natural amount in the atmosphere (~37 Bq/m³). Bulletin editors found few if any additional radon measurements leading up to the 2014 eruption.

Between 23 November 2014 through 10 January 2015, INVOLCAN (2015) published a chart showing the weekly average of daily SO₂ fluxes from Fogo (figure 14). A substantial atmospheric SO₂ increase from 23 November through the first week of December 2014 was also depicted on OMI satellite imagery (see separate section below), when SO₂ fluxes reached a peak of ~25 kilotons (kt). The Uni-CV (2015) also reported in situ measurements of SO₂ levels; they fluctuated between 869 and 2430 t/d, during 30-31 December 2014 and 1-2 January 2015.

Figure 14. Weekly average of daily SO2 emissions ("Emisión de SO2") from Fogo, based on optical remote sensing technology (mini-DOAS). The SO2 peaked at 10,900 t/d during the eruption's first week (23-29 November). Courtesy of INVOLCAN (2015), with minor revisions by Bulletin editors.

The mini-DOAS optical remote sensing in figure 14 was also used in late November to measure the gas content of plumes, according to the OVCV. Their measurements indicated the eruption around this time released 12,000 t/d of SO₂, 23,000 t/d of H₂O, and 10,000 t/d of CO₂ . On 30 November, the molar ratios of CO₂:SO₂ and H₂O:SO₂ were 1:5 and 8:5, respectively. According to Hernández and others (2015), other molar ratios were CO₂:H₂O = 0.3 and SO₂:H₂S = 7.5. (For more details on pre-eruption gas emissions, see Dionis and others (2015).)

According to a report by Uni-CV discussing the 8-11 February 2015 interval, their data on sulfur dioxide (SO₂) monitoring were provided for civil protection, to help improve crisis management. They requested that their data not be reproduced except for reporting by the team involved in the data collection (INVOLCAN / ITER and Uni-CV). That said, we provide a brief summary and cite a few broad comments. SO₂ fluxes emerging from the vent dropped to near zero during 8-11 February, one factor in determining the end of the eruption the 8th. Those low fluxes were measured by vehicle-mounted mini-DOAS insturments. From 28 November the team, with interagency support, conducted 366 measurements. One or more field trips to the vent area described conditions there during early and middle February.

According to the Uni-CV report issued 9 March 2015, during 25 January to 1 February 2015 the SO₂ flux decreased. Shortly after that the fluxes rose somewhat (to several hundred tons per day

After 7 February 2015, temperatures in the vent area of both the fumaroles and at the base of the cone had decreased significantly (table 1). The temperature difference at the two distances are a well known effect associated with absorption of infrared energy as it passes through the atmosphere.

Table 1. The temperatures of the cone base and the fumaroles from 7 to 9 February 2015. Courtesy of Uni-CV (2015).

MODVOLC. MODIS thermal infrared sensors, aboard the Aqua and Terra satellites and processed by the MODVOLC algorithm, found hotspots infrequently at Fogo between 2001 and mid-2014; these hotspots were on the N flanks of Fogo, and thus were probably not associated with volcanic activity. On 23 November 2014, the number of hotspots increased dramatically. Hotspots were recorded daily, and many had a large number of pixels (for example, 19 pixels from the Aqua satellite on 25 November 2014). By the end of December 2014, the number of hotspots declined. During January 2015, hotspots were recorded on a total of 11 days. Only one hotspot was observed in February (7 February), and none in March.

Satellite-based SO₂ emissions. Based on the OMI satellite, the 23 November eruption caused a substantial atmospheric SO₂ mass increase through the first week of December 2014 (figure 15). Total SO₂ mass reached a peak of ~25 kilotons.

Figure 15. Preliminary OMI satellite data on daily total SO2 masses in the atmosphere between 8 November 2014 and 31 December 2014. According to the chart, the SO2 peaked between 26 November and 3 December at ~25 kt. These automated measurements could have been overestimated or underestimated based on factors such as cloud cover, row anomalies, and the altitude of the plume. Courtesy of Simon Carn and the NASA MEASURES website.

References. Agência Lusa, 2014, Erupções vulcânicas da ilha do Fogo evoluem para "estado crítico", 30 November 2014, Observador (URL: http://observador.pt/2014/11/30/erupcoes-vulcanicas-da-ilha-fogo-evoluem-para-estado-critico/) [accessed in March 2015]

BBC, 2014, In pictures: Pico do Fogo volcano in Cape Verde erupts, 2 December 2014, British Broadcasting Company (URL: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30291041) [accessed in March 2015]

Caesar, Chris, 2014, Cape Verde Evacuations Are Underway Following Volcano Eruption, 23 November 2014, Boston.com (URL: http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2014/11/23/cape-verde-evacuations-are-underway-following-volcano-eruption/MqqLEMCSab9qYGqlw1F5qL/story.html) [accessed in March 2015]

Chrystello, Chrys, 2014, YouTube (URL: https://www.youtube.com/user/chryschrystello/) [accessed in March 2015]

Copernicus, 2015, Fogo Island-Cape Verde, Volcanic eruption 23 November 2014 (23/11/2014) [Grading map, detail 01, Monit 12, Activation ID, EMSR-111, Product number 01FogoIsland, v1.]. Copernicus, (URL: emergency.copernicus.eu/mapping/)

Dionis, SM; Melián, G; Rodríguez, F; Hernández, PA; Padrón, E; Pérez, NM; Barrancos, J; Padilla, G; Sumino, H; Fernandes, P; Bandomo, Z; Silva, S; Pereira, J; Semedo, H, 2015, Diffuse volcanic gas emission and thermal energy release from the summit crater of Pico do Fogo, Cape Verde, 27 January 2015, Bulletin of Volcanology (URL: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-014-0897-4) [accessed in April 2015]

Farge, Emma, 2014, Cape Verde orders evacuation after Fogo volcano erupts, 23 November 2014, Reuters (URL: http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/11/23/us-caboverde-volcano-idUSKCN0J70SN20141123) [accessed in March 2015]

Hernández, PA; Melián, G; Dionis, SM; Barrancos, J; Padilla, G; Padrón, E; Silva, S; Fernandes, P; Cardoso, N; Pérez, NM; Rodríguez, F; Asensio-Ramos, M; Calvo, D; Semedo, H; Alfama, V, 2015, Chemical composition of volcanic gases emitted during the 2014-15 Fogo eruption, Cape Verde, EGU General Assembly 2015 (URL: http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU2015/EGU2015-9577.pdf) [accessed in April 2015]

INVOLCAN, 2015, Nota de Prensa: Científicos del INVOLCAN continúan en Cabo Verde colaborando en el seguimiento de la erupción de Fogo, 11 January 2015 (URL: http://www.involcan.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/11_01_2015_Nota-de-prensa.pdf) [accessed in April 2015]

Lusa, 2014, Erupção na ilha cabo-verdiana do Fogo era "previsível", 23 November 2014, Diário de Notícias (URL: http://www.dn.pt/inicio/globo/interior.aspx?content_id=4256685) [accessed in March 2015]

Map Action, 2014, Cape Verde - Fogo Island: Shelters location (as of 11 Dec 2014), 16 December 2014 (URL: http://mapaction.org/map-catalogue/mapdetail/3671.html) [accessed in March 2015]

Rietze, Martin, 2014, Youtube, (URL: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC5LzAA_nyNWEUfpcUFOCpJw) [accessed in March 2015]

Roscoe, Richard, 2015, Fogo Volcano, Photovolcanica (URL: http://photovolcanica.com/VolcanoInfo/Fogo/Fogo.html, https://www.youtube.com/user/Photovolcanica) [accessed in March 2015]

Silva, S, Cardoso, N., Alfama, V., Cabral, J., Semedo, H., Pérez, NM, Dionis, S, Hernández, PA, Barrancos, J, Melián, GV, Pereira, JM, and Rodríguez, F., 2015, Chronology of the 2014 volcanic eruption on the island of Fogo, Cape Verde; Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 17, EGU 2015-13378 (Poster), 2015 EGU General Assembly 2015

Smith, Jennifer, 2014, Local Cape Verdeans join to support volcano victims--'Catastrophic' destruction by volcano spurs those in Mass. to help victims, The Boston Globe (URL: www.bostonglobe.com)

Uni-CV, 2015, Fórum para reconstrução da ilha do Fogo, Universidade de Cabo Verde (URL: http://www.unicv.edu.cv/index.php/arquivo-destaque/4038-2-dia-da-erupcao-equipa-da-uni-cv-faz-relatorio-do-desenvolver-da-erupcao) [accessed in March 2015]

Geologic Background. The island of Fogo consists of a single massive stratovolcano that is the most prominent of the Cape Verde Islands. The roughly circular 25-km-wide island is truncated by a large 9-km-wide caldera that is breached to the east and has a headwall 1 km high. The caldera is located asymmetrically NE of the center of the island and was formed as a result of massive lateral collapse of the older Monte Armarelo edifice. A very youthful steep-sided central cone, Pico, rises more than 1 km above the caldera floor to about 100 m above the rim. Pico, which is capped by a 500-m-wide, 150-m-deep summit crater, was apparently in almost continuous activity from the time of Portuguese settlement in 1500 CE until around 1760. Later lava flows, some from vents on the caldera floor, reached the eastern coast below the breached caldera.

Information Contacts: Observatório Vulcanológico de Cabo Verde (OVCV), Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia, Universidade de Cabo Verde (Uni-CV), Campus de Palmarejo, Praia, Cape Verde (URL: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Observatorio-Vulcanologico-de-Cabo-Verde-OVCV/175875102444250); Universidade de Cabo Verde (Uni-CV), Av. Santo Antao, Praia, Cape Verde (URL: http://www.unicv.edu.cv/); Copernicus (The European Earth Observation Programme) (URL: http://emergency.copernicus.eu/); Cabildo Insular de Tenerife, Plaza de España, 1, 38003 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain (URL: http://www.tenerife.es/); Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (INVOLCAN), Parque Taoro, 22 38400, Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain (URL: http://www.involcan.org/); Toulouse Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) (URL: http://www.meteo.fr/vaac/); Montrand Theo (URL: https://www.facebook.com/montrond.theo); Volcanological and Geothermal Observatory of the Azores, Ladeira da Mãe de Deus, 9501-855 Ponta Delgada, Portugal (URL: http://www.uac.pt/); Culture Volcan (URL: http://laculturevolcan.blogspot.com/2014/12/leruption-du-volcan-fogo-pourrait-etre.html); Mário Moreira, Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa, Portugal; Hawai’i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC alerts team, University of Hawai’i at Manoa, 1680 East-West Road, Post 602, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA MEASURES, Goddard Space Flight Center (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); and Simon Carn, Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931 USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Fogo News (URL: http://www.fogonews.com/); and Boston.com (URL: http://www.bostonglobe.com/).

This report covers activity at Suwanose-jima from 1 April 2013 to 31 December 2014. The previous Bulletin report (BGVN 38:04) detailed near-continuous tremor, a few earthquakes, and occasional ash plumes and eruptions during July 2012 through April 2013. This reporting period includes continuous tremor, intervals with several explosions per day, and plumes rising up to 5.5 km altitude. The data was gathered primarily from two key sources: the Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), who publishes monthly reports on Japanese volcanic activity (URL in Information contacts section).

The map in figure 17 highlights the location of the Otake crater, which was the source of the plumes, explosions, and other activity at Suwanose-jima during this reporting interval. The map was published by the JMA and also depicts the locations of monitoring sites for the volcano.

Figure 17. A map indicating monitoring sites and topography, with a contour interval of 20 m. The Otake crater is located in the center of the island. Seismometers (circles), infrasonic microphones (circles with crosses), tiltmeters (triangles), GPS (stars), and visual cameras (binoculars) were situated on the nearby slopes by several agencies. The Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) utilizes the light blue units, the JMA the red units, and the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GSI) the orange unit. Source: Iguchi and Ito (date unknown) with slight changes by Bulletin editors.

Activity during 2013. According to the JMA (monthly reports), the Alert Level at Suwanose-jima constantly remained at 2 (on an increasing scale of 1-5). At night, high-sensitivity cameras regularly observed weak crater glow. A series of almost-continuous tremors began on 28 September 2012 and persisted through 2013.

During the month of April, the JMA noted that the tremor lasted for a total of 677 hours and 50 minutes. On 13 April 2013, the Otake crater had a minor eruption with plumes rising to 0.7 km above the crater.

The Otake crater did not erupt during May and June 2013. In May, white plumes generally rose to 0.2-0.3 km above the crater; the tallest plume reached 0.5 km. There was "no remarkable change in plume activity" in June, according to the JMA. During the month of May, a nearly continuous tremor lasted for a total duration of 704 hours and 54 minutes. It stopped on 1 June 2013 and then resumed on 12 June.

On 9 July 2013, a pilot reported an ash plume to 1.5 km altitude. However, the Tokyo VAAC was unable to detect ash in satellite images. Continuous tremor occurred from mid-June to 15 July and from 24 to 30 July. On 29 July, an earthquake occurred near Suwanose-jima, with a magnitude of 3.2 and a seismic intensity of 2 (an increasing scale of 0-7).

The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) conducted a field trip to the volcano during 15 and 18 July 2013 (figure 18). They found the volcano quiet, releasing only short, white plumes.

Figure 18. Photos taken from 16-18 July during a field trip associated with the IAVCEI 2013 Scientific Assembly. Additional photos can be found on Volcano Discovery. (Top) Otake crater, facing NE. A thin, white plume rises from the crater and is shown in greater detail in the zoomed photo on the upper right. (Bottom, left) Crater from which the 1813 subplinian Bunka eruption originated. (Bottom, middle) Flank of old cinder cone within the rift zone. The ground in this area was covered by spatter agglutinate from the 1813 eruption. (Bottom, right) Scoria and ash deposits in the NE cliff of the island. Source: Pfeiffer (2013), labeled by Bulletin editors.

On 25 August 2013 at 1904 LT, the Otake crater erupted, and intermittent explosive eruptions continued from 26 August onwards. On 27 August, plumes rose to ~1.2 km altitude and drifted NE/SE. On 28 August, ash plumes beginning at 0910 LT rose to altitudes of 1.8-2.1 km, drifting NE and 3-3.7 km altitude, drifting E/NW. There was a total of 16 explosive eruptions during August. The above crater height of the resultant grayish white plumes generally ranged from 0.5-0.8 km, with the tallest plumes reaching ~1.5 km above the crater. Tremor occurred near continuously during 2-4, 11-14, and 25-31 August. Satellites utilized by the VAAC detected ash on 29 August, and from 30 August to 1 September, they detected explosions as well.

During September 2013, the Otake crater erupted explosively six times. Explosions occurred from 5-6 September with ash plumes rising to 1.8-2.1 km altitude, beginning at 0655 LT on the 5th and drifting NNW. On 12 September, ash plumes rose to 1.8 km altitude, drifting NW. During 29-30 September, ash plumes rose to 1.5 km altitude, drifting W and volcanic blocks were scattered around the crater on the 29th. Plumes in September generally rose above the crater to less than 1 km and the maximum height was 1.4 km. Earthquakes were felt near to Suwanose-jima on 10, 21, and 26 September 2013. The seismic intensity was 1 and tremor occurred intermittently.

During October, minor explosions occurred at the Otake crater during 13-15 and 21-22 October. Gray plumes from those eruptions generally rose above the crater to less than 0.6 km, with a maximum height of 1 km above the crater. Earthquakes were felt near the volcano on 9 October 2013. The seismic intensity was 2 and tremor occurred intermittently. On 21 October, an ash plume rose to 1.5 km altitude, heading S.

On 27 November 2013, the Otake crater erupted explosively 7 times, causing a scattering of volcanic projectiles around the crater. The eruption formed a plume that rose 1.8 km altitude, drifting E. In addition, Otake erupted occasionally throughout the month, with gray plumes above the crater generally rising to less than 0.6 km and a maximum plume height of 1 km. Tremor occurred intermittently.

Between 26 and 31 December 2013, Otake erupted 247 times, according to the JMA December 2013 report. From 27-28 December, plumes from Suwanose-jima rose to ~1.5 km altitude, drifting SE. On 28 December, small amounts of ashfall were observed [in the village ~4 km SSW] of Otake. According to the village administration, air shocks rattled windows and sliding doors from 28-29 December and crater glow was observable at night. On 29 December 2013, 125 explosions occurred, along with tremor and airshocks from about 0000 to 0300 LT. This indicated "consecutive eruptions," according to the JMA, with gray plumes rising to 0.6 km above the crater. The eruption ejected volcanic projectiles around the crater.

Activity during 2014. Information for activity during May, July, and October 2014 was unavailable, with an absence of VAAC reports for these intervals. During January, the Otake crater exploded 23 times, with volcanic projectiles scattering around the crater. The Tokyo VAAC noted explosions during 1-3 and 6 January. Between 1 and 2 January, explosions formed plumes to 0.9-1.8 km altitude, drifting SE. The explosions were heard in [the] village until the 3rd. During 8 to 9 January, explosions generated plumes, which rose to 1.2 km altitude and drifted NE/SE. The VAAC noted an explosion on 24 January, generating a plume that rose to 1.8 km altitude. Minor ashfall was observed on 1, 6, and 23 January.

During February 2014, the Otake crater exploded 7 times (on 2, 12, 19, and 23-24 February), with plumes reaching a maximum height of 1.2 km above the crater. On 2 February, the explosion at 1638 LT formed an ash plume to 1.8-3 km altitude that blew SE/SSE. On 12 February, the generated plume rose to 1.2 km altitude and drifted SE, and on 14 February, a plume rose to an altitude of 1.8 km altitude. During 23 to 24 February, plumes rose to 1.8 km altitude and drifted E. Volcanic seismicity for February was high and tremor occurred occasionally.

On 1 March 2014, the Otake crater erupted explosively. All other eruptions during March were minor and sporadic in occurrence. Plumes rose to a maximum height of 0.8 km above the crater. The volcanic seismicity was high and tremor occurred occasionally.

On 29 April, the Otake crater erupted explosively twice and the resulting plumes rose to 1.2 km altitude, heading E. All other eruptions during April were once again minor and sporadic in occurrence. Plumes reached a maximum height of 0.8 km above the crater.

During June 2014, the Otake crater erupted several times, with explosions on 18 June at 2246 LT, on 19 June at 1734 LT with a plume heading E, and on 20 June at 0933 LT. VAAC satellite imagery did not indicate any ash within the plumes.

Between 28 August and 1 September, eruptions resulted in ash plumes rising to 1.8-2.7 km altitude and drifting S, SE, E, and NE. Several eruptions occurred during the first week of September, with ash plumes rising to 1.8-5.5 km altitude on 3 September beginning at 1109 LT, 5.5 km altitude on 4 September at 1833 LT, and 2.1 km altitude on 9 September at 2233 LT.

On 14 November 2014, the Tokyo VAAC reported an explosion, with a plume rising to 1.8 km altitude and drifting SE.

Explosions at Suwanose-jima on 7 December 2014 formed plumes rising to 1.5-1.8 km altitude, drifting E/SE. On 14 December, plumes rose to 1.8 km altitude. and drifted SE.

SO₂ emissions. Morita and others (2013) conducted an analysis of SO₂ emissions at Suwanose-jima between 20 January and 7 May 2013. Using a UV spectrometer, Ocean Optics USB2000+, they obtained 3 to 15 minute long scans from between 0800 and 1700 LT. The average daily SO₂ emission rate was ~700 tons/day (t/d), and ranged between 300 and 1300 t/d. These emission numbers are comparable to those at Suwanose-jima between 1975 and 2006, when the SO₂ fluctuated between 300 and 1,130 t/d (Mori and others, 2013). The researchers also found positive correlations between seismic amplitude and released puffs with associated increases in SO₂ emissions.

References. Iguchi, M., Ito, K., date unknown, 97. Suwanosejima, Japan Meteorological Agency (URL: http://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vois/data/tokyo/STOCK/souran_eng/volcanoes/097_suwanosejima.pdf) [accessed in April 2015]

Mori, T., Shinohara, H., Kazahaya, K., Hirabayashi, J., Matsushima, T., Mori, T., Ohwada, M., Masanobu, O., Iino, H., Miyashita, M., 2013, Time-averaged SO₂ fluxes of subduction-zone volcanoes: Example of a 32-year exhaustive survey for Japanese volcanoes, 16 August 2013, Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (URL: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jgrd.50591/full)

Morita, M., Mori, T., Iguchi, M., Nishimura, T., 2013, Continuous monitoring of sulfur dioxide emission rate at Suwanosejima volcano, Japan, Fall 2013, American Geophysical Union (URL: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AGUFM.V43B2875M)

Pfeiffer, T., 2013, Excursion to Suwanose-jima volcano (Tokara Islands, Japan) - photos from the IAVCEI 2013 field trip A3, July 2013, Volcano Discovery (URL: http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/suwanosejima/photos/july2013/fieldtrip.html) [accessed in April 2015]

Geologic Background. The 8-km-long island of Suwanosejima in the northern Ryukyu Islands consists of an andesitic stratovolcano with two active summit craters. The summit is truncated by a large breached crater extending to the sea on the E flank that was formed by edifice collapse. One of Japan's most frequently active volcanoes, it was in a state of intermittent Strombolian activity from Otake, the NE summit crater, between 1949 and 1996, after which periods of inactivity lengthened. The largest recorded eruption took place in 1813-14, when thick scoria deposits covered residential areas, and the SW crater produced two lava flows that reached the western coast. At the end of the eruption the summit of Otake collapsed, forming a large debris avalanche and creating an open collapse scarp extending to the eastern coast. The island remained uninhabited for about 70 years after the 1813-1814 eruption. Lava flows reached the eastern coast of the island in 1884. Only about 50 people live on the island.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html; Monthly report URL: http://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vois/data/tokyo/eng/volcano_activity/monthly.htm); Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Tokyo, Japan (URL: http://ds.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vaac/data/)