Nyiragongo is a stratovolcano with a 1.2 km-wide summit crater containing an active lava lake that has been present since at least 1971. It is located the Virunga Volcanic Province (VVP) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, part of the western branch of the East African Rift System. Typical volcanism includes strong and frequent thermal anomalies, primarily due to the lava lake, incandescence, gas-and-steam plumes, and seismicity. This report updates activity during June through November 2019 with the primary source information from monthly reports by the Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG) and satellite data.

In the July 2019 monthly report, OVG stated that the lava lake level had dropped during the month, with incandescence only visible at night (figure 68). In addition, the small eruptive cone within the crater, which has been active since 2014, decreased in activity during this timeframe. A MONUSCO (United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) helicopter overflight took photos of the lava lake and observed that the level had begun to rise on 27 July. Seismicity was relatively moderate throughout this reporting period; however, on 9-16 July and 21 August strong seismic swarms were recorded.

Figure 68. Webcam images of Nyiragongo on 20 July 2019 where incandescence is not visible during the day (left) but is observed at night (right). Incandescence is accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions. Courtesy of OVG.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data continued to show frequent and strong thermal anomalies within 5 km of the crater summit through November 2019 (figure 69). Similarly, the MODVOLC algorithm reported almost daily thermal hotspots (more than 600) within the summit crater between June 2019 through November. These data are corroborated with Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery and a photo from OVG on 19 December 2019 showing the active lava lake (figures 70 and 71).

Figure 69. Thermal anomalies at Nyiragongo from 3 January through November 2019 as recorded by the MIROVA system (Log Radiative Power) were frequent and strong. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 70. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery (bands 12, 11, 8A) showed ongoing thermal activity (bright yellow-orange) at Nyiragongo during June through November 2019. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 71. Photo of the active lava lake in the summit crater at Nyiragongo on 19 December 2019. Incandescence is accompanied by a gas-and-steam plume. Courtesy of OVG via Charles Balagizi.

Geologic Background. One of Africa's most notable volcanoes, Nyiragongo contained a lava lake in its deep summit crater that was active for half a century before draining catastrophically through its outer flanks in 1977. The steep slopes of a stratovolcano contrast to the low profile of its neighboring shield volcano, Nyamuragira. Benches in the steep-walled, 1.2-km-wide summit crater mark levels of former lava lakes, which have been observed since the late-19th century. Two older stratovolcanoes, Baruta and Shaheru, are partially overlapped by Nyiragongo on the north and south. About 100 parasitic cones are located primarily along radial fissures south of Shaheru, east of the summit, and along a NE-SW zone extending as far as Lake Kivu. Many cones are buried by voluminous lava flows that extend long distances down the flanks, which is characterized by the eruption of foiditic rocks. The extremely fluid 1977 lava flows caused many fatalities, as did lava flows that inundated portions of the major city of Goma in January 2002.

Information Contacts: Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG), Departement de Geophysique, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles, Lwiro, D.S. Bukavu, DR Congo; MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); Charles Balagizi (Twitter: @CharlesBalagizi, https://twitter.com/CharlesBalagizi).

Activity at Ebeko includes frequent explosions that have generated ash plumes reaching altitudes of 1.5-6 km over the last several years, with the higher altitudes occurring since mid-2018 (BGVN 43:03, 43:06, 43:12, 44:07). Ash frequently falls in Severo-Kurilsk (7 km ESE), which is monitored by the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT). This activity continued during June through November 2019; the Aviation Color Code remained at Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale).

Explosive activity during December 2018 through November 2019 often sent ash plumes to altitudes between 2.2 to 4.5 km, or heights of 1.1 to 3.4 km above the crater (table 8). Eruptions since 1967 have originated from the northern crater of the summit area (figure 20). Webcams occasionally captured ash explosions, as seen on 27 July 2019(figure 21). KVERT often reported the presence of thermal anomalies; particularly on 23 September 2019, a Sentinel-2 thermal satellite image showed a strong thermal signature at the crater summit accompanied by an ash plume (figure 22). Ashfall is relatively frequent in Severo-Kurilsk (7 km ESE) and can drift in different direction based on the wind pattern, which can be seen in satellite imagery on 30 October 2019 deposited NE and SE from the crater(figure 23).

Table 8. Summary of activity at Ebeko, December 2018-November 2019. S-K is Severo-Kurilsk (7 km ESE of the volcano). TA is thermal anomaly in satellite images. Data courtesy of KVERT.

Figure 20. Satellite image showing the summit crater complex at Ebeko, July 2019. Monthly mosaic image for July 2019, copyright 2019 Planet Labs, Inc.

Figure 21. Webcam photo of an explosion and ash plume at Ebeko on 27 July 2019. Videodata by IMGG FEB RAS and KB GS RAS (color adjusted and cropped); courtesy of Institute of Volcanology and Seismology FEB RAS, KVERT.

Figure 22. Satellite images showing an ash explosion from Ebeko on 23 September 2019. Top image is in natural color (bands 4, 3, 2). Bottom image is using "Atmospheric Penetration" rendering (bands 12, 11, 8A) to show a thermal anomaly in the northern crater visible around the rising plume. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 23. A satellite image of Ebeko from Sentinel-2 (LC1 natural color, bands 4, 3, 2) on 30 October 2019 showing previous ashfall deposits on the snow going in multiple directions. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data detected four low-power thermal anomalies during the second half of July, and one each in the months of June, August, and October; no activity was recorded in September or November MODVOLC thermal alerts observed only one thermal anomaly between June through November 2019.

Geologic Background. The flat-topped summit of the central cone of Ebeko volcano, one of the most active in the Kuril Islands, occupies the northern end of Paramushir Island. Three summit craters located along a SSW-NNE line form Ebeko volcano proper, at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Blocky lava flows extend west from Ebeko and SE from the neighboring Nezametnyi cone. The eastern part of the southern crater contains strong solfataras and a large boiling spring. The central crater is filled by a lake about 20 m deep whose shores are lined with steaming solfataras; the northern crater lies across a narrow, low barrier from the central crater and contains a small, cold crescentic lake. Historical activity, recorded since the late-18th century, has been restricted to small-to-moderate explosive eruptions from the summit craters. Intense fumarolic activity occurs in the summit craters, on the outer flanks of the cone, and in lateral explosion craters.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS), 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/eng/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); Planet Labs, Inc. (URL: https://www.planet.com/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).

Nevado del Ruiz is a glaciated volcano in Colombia (figure 86). It is known for the 13 November 1985 eruption that produced an ash plume and associated pyroclastic flows onto the glacier, triggering a lahar that approximately 25,000 people in the towns of Armero (46 km west) and Chinchiná (34 km east). Since 1985 activity has intermittently occurred at the Arenas crater. The eruption that began on 18 November 2014 included ash plumes dominantly dispersed to the NW of Arenas crater (BGVN 42:06). This bulletin summarizes activity during January 2016 through December 2017 and is based on reports by Servicio Geologico Colombiano and Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Manizales, Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) notices, and satellite data.

Figure 86. A satellite image of Nevado del Ruiz showing the location of the active Arenas crater. September 2019 Monthly Mosaic image copyright Planet Labs 2019.

Activity during 2016. Throughout January 2016 ash and steam plumes were observed reaching up to a few kilometers. Significant water vapor and volcanic gases, especially SO₂, were detected throughout the month. Thermal anomalies were detected in the crater on the 27th and 31st. Significant water vapor and volcanic gas plumes, in particular SO₂, were frequently detected by the SCAN DOAS (Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy) station and satellite data (figure 87). A M3.2 earthquake was felt in the area on 18 January. Similar activity continued through February with notable ash plumes up to 1 km, and a M3.6 earthquake was felt on the 6th. Ash and gas-and-steam plumes were reported throughout March with a maximum of 3.5 km on the 31st (figure 88). Significant water vapor and gas plumes continued from the Arenas crater throughout the month, and a thermal anomaly was noted on the 28th. An increase in seismicity was reported on the 29th.

Figure 87. Examples of SO2 plumes from Nevado del Ruiz detected by the Aura/OMI instrument on 10, 26, and 31 January 2019. Courtesy of Goddard Space Flight Center.

Figure 88. Ash plumes at Nevado del Ruiz during March. Webcam images courtesy of Servicio Geologico Colombiano, various 2016 reports.

The activity continued into April with a M 3.0 earthquake felt by nearby inhabitants on the 8th, an increase in seismicity reported in the week of 12-18, and another significant increase on the 28th with earthquakes felt around Manizales. Thermal anomalies were noted during 12-18 April with the largest on the 16th. Ash plumes continued through the month as well as significant steam-and-gas plumes. Ashfall was reported in Murillo on the 29th.

The elevated activity continued through May with significant steam plumes up to 1.7 km above the crater during the week of 10-16. Thermal anomalies were reported on the 11th and 12th. Steam, gas, and ash plumes reached 2.5 km above the crater and dispersed to the W and NW. Ashfall was reported in La Florida on the 20th (figure 89) and multiple ash plumes on the 22nd reached 2.5 km and resulted in the closure of the La Nubia airport in Manizales. Ash and gas-and-steam emission continued during June (figure 90).

Figure 89. Ash plumes at Nevado del Ruiz on 17, 18, and 20 May 2016 with fine ash deposited on a car in La Florida, Manizales on the 20th. Webcams located in the NE Guali sector of the volcano, courtesy of Servicio Geologico Colombiano 20 May 2016 report.

Figure 90. Examples of gas-and-steam and ash plumes at Nevado del Ruiz during June and July 2016. Courtesy of Servicio Geologico Colombiano (7 July 2016 report).

Similar activity was reported in July with gas-and-steam and ash plumes often dispersing to the NW and W. Ashfall was reported to the NW on 16 July (figure 91). Drumbeat seismicity was detected on 13, 15, 16, and 17 July, with two hours on the 16th being the longest duration episode do far. Drumbeat seismicity was noted by SGC as indicating dome growth. Significant water vapor and gas emissions continued through August. Ash plumes were reported through the month with plumes up to 1.3 km above the crater on 28 and 2.3 km on 29. Similar activity was reported through September as well as a thermal anomaly and ash deposition apparent in satellite data (figure 92). Drumbeat seismicity was noted again on the 17th.

Figure 91. The location of ashfall resulting from an explosion at Nevado del Ruiz on 16 July 2016 and a sample of the ash under a microscope. The ash is composed of lithics, plagioclase and pyroxene crystals, and minor volcanic glass. Courtesy of Servicio Geologico Colombiano (16 July 2016 report).

Figure 92. This Sentinel-2 thermal infrared satellite image shows elevated temperatures in the Nevado del Ruiz Arenas crater (yellow and orange) on 16 September 2016. Ash deposits are also visible to the NW of the crater. In this image blue is snow and ice. False color (urban) satellite image (bands 12, 11, 4) courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

During the week of 4-10 October it was noted that activity consisting of regular ash plumes had been ongoing for 22 months. Ash plumes continued with reported plumes reaching 2.5 above the crater throughout October (figure 93), accompanied by significant steam and water vapor emissions. A M 4.4 earthquake was felt nearby on the 7th. Similar activity continued through November and December 2016 with plumes consisting of gas and steam, and sometimes ash reaching 2 km above the crater.

Figure 93. An ash plume rising above Nevado del Ruiz on 27 October 2016. Courtesy of Servicio Geologico Colombiano.

Activity during 2017. Significant steam and gas emissions, especially SO₂, continued into early 2017. Ash plumes detected through seismicity were confirmed in webcam images and through local reports; the plumes reached a maximum height of 2.5 km above the volcano on the 6th (figure 94). Drumbeat seismicity was recorded during 3-9, and on 22 January. Inflation was detected early in the month and several thermal anomalies were noted.

Intermittent deformation continued into February. Significant steam-and-gas emissions continued with intermittent ash plumes reaching 1.5-2 km above the volcano. Thermal anomalies were noted throughout the month and there was a significant increase in seismicity during 23-26 February.

Figure 94. Ash plumes at Nevado del Ruiz on 6 January 2017. Courtesy of Servicio Geologico Colombiano.

Thermal anomalies continued to be detected through March. Ash plumes continued to be observed and recorded in seismicity and maximum heights of 2 km above the volcano were noted. Deflation continued after the intermittent inflation the previous month. On 10-11 April a period of short-duration and very low-energy drumbeat seismicity was recorded. Significant gas and steam emission continued through April with intermittent ash plumes reaching 1.5 km above the volcano. Thermal anomalies were detected early in the month.

Unrest continued through May with elevated seismicity, significant steam-and-gas emissions, and ash plumes reaching 1.7 km above the crater. Five episodes of drumbeat seismicity were recorded on 29 May and intermittent deformation continued. There were no available reports for June and July.

Variable seismicity was recorded during August and deflation was measured in the first week. Gas-and-steam plumes were observed rising to 850 m above the crater on the 3rd, and 450 m later in the month. A thermal anomaly was noted on the 14th. There were no available reports for September through December.

On 18 December 2017 the Washington VAAC issued an advisory for an ash plume to 6 km that was moving west and dispersing. The plume was described as a "thin veil of volcanic ash and gasses" that was seen in visible satellite imagery, NOAA/CIMSS, and supported by webcam imagery.

Geologic Background. Nevado del Ruiz is a broad, glacier-covered volcano in central Colombia that covers more than 200 km2. Three major edifices, composed of andesitic and dacitic lavas and andesitic pyroclastics, have been constructed since the beginning of the Pleistocene. The modern cone consists of a broad cluster of lava domes built within the caldera of an older edifice. The 1-km-wide, 240-m-deep Arenas crater occupies the summit. The prominent La Olleta pyroclastic cone located on the SW flank may also have been active in historical time. Steep headwalls of massive landslides cut the flanks. Melting of its summit icecap during historical eruptions, which date back to the 16th century, has resulted in devastating lahars, including one in 1985 that was South America's deadliest eruption.

Information Contacts: Servicio Geologico Colombiano (SGC), Diagonal 53 No. 34-53 - Bogotá D.C., Colombia (URL: https://www2.sgc.gov.co/volcanes/index.html); Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Manizales (URL: https://www.facebook.com/ovsmanizales); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS OSPO, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: www.ospo.noaa.gov/Products/atmosphere/vaac); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Sabancaya is an andesitic stratovolcano located in Peru. The most recent eruptive episode began in early November 2016, which is characterized by gas-and-steam and ash emissions, seismicity, and explosive events (BGVN 44:06). The ash plumes are dispersed by wind with a typical radius of 30 km, which occasionally results in ashfall. Current volcanism includes high seismicity, gas-and-steam emissions, ash and SO₂ plumes, numerous thermal anomalies, and explosive events. This report updates information from June through November 2019 using information primarily from the Instituto Geofisico del Peru (IGP) and Observatorio Volcanologico del INGEMMET (Instituto Geológical Minero y Metalúrgico) (OVI-INGEMMET).

Table 5. Summary of eruptive activity at Sabancaya during June-November 2019 based on IGP weekly reports, the Buenos Aires VAAC advisories, the HIGP MODVOLC hotspot monitoring algorithm, and Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI satellite data.

Explosions, ash emissions, thermal signatures, and high concentrations of SO₂ were reported each week during June-November 2019 by IGP, the Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), HIGP MODVOLC, and Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI satellite data (table 5). Thermal anomalies were visible in the summit crater, even in the presence of meteoric clouds and ash plumes were occasionally visible rising from the summit in clear weather (figure 68). The maximum plume height reached 4.5 km above the crater drifting NW, W, and S the week of 29 July-4 August, according to IGP who used surveillance cameras to visually monitor the plume (figure 69). This ash plume had a radius of 30 km, which resulted in ashfall in Colca (NW) and Huambo (W). On 27 July the SO₂ levels reached a high of 12,814 tons/day, according to INGEMMET. An average of 58 daily explosions occurred in early November, which is the largest average of this reporting period.

Figure 68. Sentinel-2 satellite imagery detected ash plumes, gas-and-steam emissions, and multiple thermal signatures (bright yellow-orange) in the crater at Sabancaya during June-November 2019. Sentinel-2 atmospheric penetration (bands 12, 11, 8A) images courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 69. A webcam image of an ash plume rising from Sabancaya on 1 August 2019 at least 4 km above the crater. Courtesy of IGP.

Seismicity was also particularly high between August and September 2019, according to INGEMMET. On 14 August, roughly 850 earthquakes were detected. There were 280 earthquakes reported on 15 September, located 6 km NE of the crater. Both seismic events were characterized as seismic swarms. Seismicity decreased afterward but continued through the reporting period.

In February 2017, a lava dome was established inside the crater. Since then, it has been growing slowly, filling the N area of the crater and producing thermal anomalies. On 26 October 2019, OVI-INGEMMET conducted a drone overflight and captured video of the lava dome (figure 70). According to IGP, this lava dome is approximately 4.6 million cubic meters with a growth rate of 0.05 m3/s.

Figure 70. Drone images of the lava dome and degassing inside the crater at Sabancaya on 26 (top) and 27 (bottom) October 2019. Courtesy of INGEMMET (Informe Ténico No A6969).

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data shows strong, consistent thermal anomalies occurring all throughout June through November 2019 (figure 71). In conjunction with these thermal anomalies, the October 2019 special issue report by INGEMMET showed new hotspots forming along the crater rim in July 2018 and August 2019 (figure 72).

Figure 71. Thermal anomalies at Sabancaya for 3 January through November 2019 as recorded by the MIROVA system (Log Radiative Power) were frequent, strong, and consistent. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 72. Thermal hotspots on the NW section of the crater at Sabancaya using MIROVA images. These images show the progression of the formation of at least two new hotspots between February 2017 to August 2019. Courtesy of INGEMMET, Informe Técnico No A6969.

Sulfur dioxide emissions also persisted at significant levels from June through November 2019, as detected by Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI satellite data (figure 73). The satellite measurements of the SO₂ emissions exceeded 2 DU (Dobson Units) at least 20 days each month during this time. These SO₂ plumes sometimes occurred for multiple consecutive days (figure 74).

Figure 73. Consistent, large SO2 plumes from Sabancaya were seen in TROPOMI instrument satellite data throughout June-November 2019, many of which drifted in different directions based on the prevailing winds. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Figure 74. Persistent SO2 plumes from Sabancaya appeared daily during 13-16 September 2019 in the TROPOMI instrument satellite data. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Geologic Background. Sabancaya, located in the saddle NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca volcanoes, is the youngest of these volcanic centers and the only one to have erupted in historical time. The oldest of the three, Nevado Hualca Hualca, is of probable late-Pliocene to early Pleistocene age. The name Sabancaya (meaning "tongue of fire" in the Quechua language) first appeared in records in 1595 CE, suggesting activity prior to that date. Holocene activity has consisted of Plinian eruptions followed by emission of voluminous andesitic and dacitic lava flows, which form an extensive apron around the volcano on all sides but the south. Records of historical eruptions date back to 1750.

Information Contacts: Instituto Geofisico del Peru (IGP), Calle Badajoz N° 169 Urb. Mayorazgo IV Etapa, Ate, Lima 15012, Perú (URL: https://www.gob.pe/igp); Observatorio Volcanologico del INGEMMET (Instituto Geológical Minero y Metalúrgico), Barrio Magisterial Nro. 2 B-16 Umacollo - Yanahuara Arequipa, Peru (URL: http://ovi.ingemmet.gob.pe); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://SO2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Karangetang (also known as Api Siau), located on the island of Siau in the Sitaro Regency, North Sulawesi, Indonesia, has experienced more than 40 recorded eruptions since 1675 in addition to many smaller undocumented eruptions. In early February 2019, a lava flow originated from the N crater (Kawah Dua) traveling NNW and reaching a distance over 3 km. Recent monitoring showed a lava flow from the S crater (Kawah Utama, also considered the "Main Crater") traveling toward the Kahetang and Batuawang River drainages on 15 April 2019. Gas-and-steam emissions, ash plumes, moderate seismicity, and thermal anomalies including lava flow activity define this current reporting period for May through November 2019. The primary source of information for this report comes from daily and weekly reports by the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM, or the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and satellite data.

PVMBG reported that white gas-and-steam emissions were visible rising above both craters consistently between May through November 2019 (figures 30 and 31). The maximum altitude for these emissions was 400 m above the Dua Crater on 27 May and 700 m above the Main Crater on 12 June. Throughout the reporting period PVMBG noted that moderate seismicity occurred, which included both shallow and deep volcanic earthquakes.

Figure 30. A Sentinel-2 image of Karangetang showing two active craters producing gas-and-steam emissions with a small amount of ash on 7 August 2019. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 31. Webcam images of gas-and-steam emissions rising from the summit of Karangetang on 14 (top) and 25 (bottom) October 2019. Courtesy of PVMBG via Øystein Lund Andersen.

Activity was relatively low between May and June 2019, consisting mostly of gas-and-steam emissions. On 26-27 May 2019 crater incandescence was observed above the Main Crater; white gas-and-steam emissions were rising from both craters (figures 32 and 33). At 1858 on 20 July, incandescent avalanches of material originating from the Main Crater traveled as far as 1 km W toward the Pangi and Kinali River drainages. By 22 July the incandescent material had traveled another 500 m in the same direction as well as 1 km in the direction of the Nanitu and Beha River drainages. According to a Darwin VAAC report, discreet, intermittent ash eruptions on 30 July resulted in plumes drifting W at 7.6 km altitude and SE at 3 km, as observed in HIMAWARI-8 satellite imagery.

Figure 32. Photograph of summit crater incandescence at Karangetang on 12 May 2019. Courtesy of Dominik Derek.

Figure 33. Photograph of both summit crater incandescence at Karangetang on 12 May 2019 accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions. Courtesy of Dominik Derek.

On 5 August 2019 a minor eruption produced an ash cloud that rose 3 km and drifted E. PVMBG reported in the weekly report for 5-11 August that an incandescent lava flow from the Main Crater was traveling W and SW on the slopes of Karangetang and producing incandescent avalanches (figure 34). During 12 August through 1 September lava continued to effuse from both the Main and Dua craters. Avalanches of material traveled as far as 1.5 km SW toward the Nanitu and Pangi River drainages, 1.4-2 km to the W of Pangi, and 1.8 km down the Sense River drainage. Lava fountaining was observed occurring up to 10 m above the summit on 14-20 August.

Figure 34. Photograph of summit crater incandescence and a lava flow from Karangetang on 7 August 2019. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

PVMBG reported that during 2-22 September lava continued to effuse from both craters, traveling SW toward the Nanitu, Pangi, and Sense River drainages as far as 1.5 km. On 24 September the lava flow occasionally traveled 0.8-1.5 km toward the West Beha River drainage. The lava flow from the Main Crater continued through at least the end of November, moving SW and W as far as 1.5 km toward the Nanitu, Pangi, and Sense River drainages. In late October and onwards, incandescence from both summit craters was observed at night. The lava flow often traveled as far as 1 km toward the Batang and East Beha River drainage on 12 November, the West Beha River drainage on 15, 22, 24, and 29 November, and the Batang and West Beha River drainages on 25-27 November (figure 35). On 30 November a Strombolian eruption occurred in the Main Crater accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions rising 100 m above the Main Crater and 50 m above the Dua Crater. Lava flows traveled SW and W toward the Nanitu, Sense, and Pangi River drainages as far as 1.5 km, the West Beha and Batang River drainages as far as 1 km, and occasionally the Batu Awang and Kahetang River drainages as far as 2 km. Lava fountaining was reported occurring 10-25 m above the Main Crater and 10 m above the Dua Crater on 6, 8-12, 15, 21-30 November.

Figure 35. Webcam image of gas-and-steam emissions rising from the summit of Karangetang accompanied by incandescence and lava flows at night on 27 November 2019. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia via Øystein Lund Andersen.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed consistent and strong thermal anomalies within 5 km of the summit craters from late July through November 2019 (figure 36). Satellite imagery from Sentinel-2 corroborated this data, showing strong thermal anomalies and lava flows originating from both craters during this same timeframe (figure 37). In addition to these lava flows, satellite imagery also captured intermittent gas-and-steam emissions from May through November (figure 38). MODVOLC thermal alerts registered 165 thermal hotspots near Karangetang's summit between May and November.

Figure 36. Frequent and strong thermal anomalies at Karangetang between 3 January through November 2019 as recorded by the MIROVA system (Log Radiative Power) began in late July and were recorded within 5 km of the summit craters. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 37. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery (bands 12, 11, 8A) confirmed ongoing thermal activity (bright orange) at Karangetang from July into November 2019. The lava flows traveled dominantly in the W direction from the Main Crater. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 38. Sentinel-2 satellite imagery showing gas-and-steam emissions with a small amount of ash (middle and right) rising from both craters of Karangetang during May through November 2019. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI satellite data detected multiple sulfur dioxide plumes between May and November 2019 (figure 39). These emissions occasionally exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions based on the dominant wind pattern.

Figure 39. SO2 emissions from Karangetang (indicated by the red box) were seen in TROPOMI instrument satellite data during May through November 2019, many of which drifted in different directions based on the prevailing winds. Top left: 27 May 2019. Top middle: 26 July 2019. Top right: 17 August 2019. Bottom left: 27 September 2019. Bottom middle: 3 October 2019. Bottom right: 21 November 2019. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Geologic Background. Karangetang (Api Siau) volcano lies at the northern end of the island of Siau, about 125 km NNE of the NE-most point of Sulawesi island. The stratovolcano contains five summit craters along a N-S line. It is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, with more than 40 eruptions recorded since 1675 and many additional small eruptions that were not documented in the historical record (Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World: Neumann van Padang, 1951). Twentieth-century eruptions have included frequent explosive activity sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters; collapse of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://SO2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); Øystein Lund Andersen (Twitter: @OysteinLAnderse, https://twitter.com/OysteinLAnderse, URL: https://www.oysteinlundandersen.com); Dominik Derek (URL: https://www.facebook.com/07dominikderek/).

Ulawun is a basaltic-to-andesitic stratovolcano located in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea, with typical activity consisting of seismicity, gas-and-steam plumes, and ash emissions. The most recent eruption began in late June 2019 involving ash and gas-and-steam emissions, increased seismicity, and a pyroclastic flow (BGVN 44:09). This report includes volcanism from September to October 2019 with primary source information from the Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO) and the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC).

Activity remained low through 26 September 2019, mainly consisting of variable amounts of gas-and-steam emissions and low seismicity. Between 26 and 29 September RVO reported that the seismicity increased slightly and included low-level volcanic tremors and Real-Time Seismic Amplitude Measurement (RSAM) values in the 200-400 range on 19, 20, and 22 September. On 30 September small volcanic earthquakes began around 1000 and continued to increase in frequency; by 1220, they were characterized as a seismic swarm. The Darwin VAAC advisory noted that an ash plume rose to 4.6-6 km altitude, drifting SW and W, based on ground reports.

On 1 October 2019 the seismicity increased, reaching RSAM values up to 10,000 units between 0130 and 0200, according to RVO. These events preceded an eruption which originated from a new vent that opened on the SW flank at 700 m elevation, about three-quarters of the way down the flank from the summit. The eruption started between 0430 and 0500 and was defined by incandescence and lava fountaining to less than 100 m. In addition to lava fountaining, light- to dark-gray ash plumes were visible rising several kilometers above the vent and drifting NW and W (figure 21). On 2 October, as the lava fountaining continued, ash-and-steam plumes rose to variable heights between 2 and 5.2 km (figures 22 and 23), resulting in ashfall to the W in Navo. Seismicity remained high, with RSAM values passing 12,000. A lava flow also emerged during the night which traveled 1-2 km NW. The main summit crater produced white gas-and-steam emissions, but no incandescence or other signs of activity were observed.

Figure 21. Photographs of incandescence and lava fountaining from Ulawun during 1-2 October 2019. A) Lava fountains along with ash plumes that rose several kilometers above the vent. B) Incandescence and lava fountaining seen from offshore. Courtesy of Christopher Lagisa.

Figure 22. Photographs of an ash plume rising from Ulawun on 1 October 2019. In the right photo, lava fountaining is visible. Courtesy of Christopher Lagisa.

Figure 23. Photograph of lava fountaining and an ash plume rising from Ulawun on 1 October 2019. Courtesy of Joe Metto, WNB Provincial Disaster Office (RVO Report 2019100101).

Ash emissions began to decrease by 3 October 2019; satellite imagery and ground observations showed an ash cloud rising to 3 km altitude and drifting N, according to the Darwin VAAC report. RVO reported that the fissure eruption on the SW flank stopped on 4 October, but gas-and-steam emissions and weak incandescence were still visible. The lava flow slowed, advancing 3-5 m/day, while declining seismicity was reflected in RSAM values fluctuating around 1,000. RVO reported that between 23 and 31 October the main summit crater continued to produce variable amounts of white gas-and-steam emissions (figure 24) and that no incandescence was observed after 5 October. Gas-and-steam emissions were also observed around the new SW vent and along the lava flow. Seismicity remained low until 27-29 October; it increased again and peaked on 30 October, reaching an RSAM value of 1,700 before dropping and fluctuating around 1,200-1,500.

Figure 24. Webcam photo of a gas-and-steam plume rising from Ulawun on 30 October 2019. Courtesy of the Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO).

In addition to ash plumes, SO₂ plumes were also detected between September and October 2019. Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI data showed SO₂ plumes, some of which exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) drifting in different directions (figure 25). MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed strong, frequent thermal anomalies within 5 km of the summit beginning in early October 2019 and throughout the rest of the month (figure 26). Only one thermal anomaly was detected in early December.

Figure 25. Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI data showing a high concentration of SO2 plumes rising from Ulawun between late September-early October 2019. Top left: 11 September 2019. Top right: 1 October 2019. Bottom left: 2 October 2019. Bottom right: 3 October 2019. Courtesy of the NASA Space Goddard Flight Center.

Figure 26. Frequent and strong thermal anomalies at Ulawun for February through December 2019 as recorded by the MIROVA system (Log Radiative Power) began in early October and continued throughout the month. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Activity in November was relatively low, with only a variable amount of white gas-and-steam emissions visible and low (less than 200 RSAM units) seismicity with sporadic volcanic earthquakes. Between 9-22 December, a webcam showed intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions were observed at the main crater, accompanied by some incandescence at night. Some gas-and-steam emissions were also observed rising from the new SW vent along the lava flow.

Geologic Background. The symmetrical basaltic-to-andesitic Ulawun stratovolcano is the highest volcano of the Bismarck arc, and one of Papua New Guinea's most frequently active. The volcano, also known as the Father, rises above the N coast of the island of New Britain across a low saddle NE of Bamus volcano, the South Son. The upper 1,000 m is unvegetated. A prominent E-W escarpment on the south may be the result of large-scale slumping. Satellitic cones occupy the NW and E flanks. A steep-walled valley cuts the NW side, and a flank lava-flow complex lies to the south of this valley. Historical eruptions date back to the beginning of the 18th century. Twentieth-century eruptions were mildly explosive until 1967, but after 1970 several larger eruptions produced lava flows and basaltic pyroclastic flows, greatly modifying the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO), Geohazards Management Division, Department of Mineral Policy and Geohazards Management (DMPGM), PO Box 3386, Kokopo, East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea; Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://SO2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Christopher Lagisa, West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea (URL: https://www.facebook.com/christopher.lagisa, images posted at https://www.facebook.com/christopher.lagisa/posts/730662937360239 and https://www.facebook.com/christopher.lagisa/posts/730215604071639).

Nyamuragira (also known as Nyamulagira) is a high-potassium basaltic shield volcano located in the Virunga Volcanic Province (VVP) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Previous volcanism consisted of the reappearance of a lava lake in the summit crater in mid-April 2018, lava emissions, and high seismicity (BGVN 44:05). Current activity includes strong thermal signatures, continued inner crater wall collapses, and continued moderate seismicity. The primary source of information for this June-November 2019 report comes from the Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG) and satellite data and imagery from multiple sources.

OVG reported in the July 2019 monthly that the inner crater wall collapses that were observed in May continued to occur. During this month, there was a sharp decrease in the lava lake level, and it is no longer visible. However, the report stated that lava fountaining was visible from a small cone within this crater, though its activity has also decreased since 2014. In late July, a thermal anomaly and fumaroles were observed originating from this cone (figure 85). Seismicity remained moderate throughout this reporting period.

Figure 85. Photograph showing the small active cone within the crater of Nyamuragira in late July 2019. Fumaroles are also observed within the crater originating from the small cone. Courtesy of Sergio Maguna.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data shows strong, frequent thermal anomalies within 5 km of the summit between June through November (figure 86). The strength of these thermal anomalies noticeably decreases briefly in September. MODVOLC thermal alerts registered 54 thermal hotspots dominantly near the N area of the crater during June through November 2019. Satellite imagery from Sentinel-2 corroborated this data, showing strong thermal anomalies within the summit crater during this same timeframe (figure 87).

Figure 86. The MIROVA graph of thermal activity (log radiative power) at Nyamuragira during 30 January through November 2019 shows strong, frequent thermal anomalies through November with a brief decrease in activity in late April-early May and early September. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 87. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery (bands 12, 11, 8A) confirmed ongoing thermal activity at Nyamuragira into November 2019. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. Africa's most active volcano, Nyamuragira, is a massive high-potassium basaltic shield about 25 km N of Lake Kivu. Also known as Nyamulagira, it has generated extensive lava flows that cover 1500 km2 of the western branch of the East African Rift. The broad low-angle shield volcano contrasts dramatically with the adjacent steep-sided Nyiragongo to the SW. The summit is truncated by a small 2 x 2.3 km caldera that has walls up to about 100 m high. Historical eruptions have occurred within the summit caldera, as well as from the numerous fissures and cinder cones on the flanks. A lava lake in the summit crater, active since at least 1921, drained in 1938, at the time of a major flank eruption. Historical lava flows extend down the flanks more than 30 km from the summit, reaching as far as Lake Kivu.

Information Contacts: Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG), Departement de Geophysique, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles, Lwiro, D.S. Bukavu, DR Congo; Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sergio Maguna (Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/sergio.maguna.9, images posted at https://www.facebook.com/sergio.maguna.9/posts/1267625096730837).

Bagana volcano is found in a remote portion of central Bougainville Island in Papua New Guinea. The most recent eruptive phase that began in early 2000 has produced ash plumes and thermal anomalies (BGVN 44:06, 50:01). Activity has remained low between January-July 2019 with rare thermal anomalies and occasional steam plumes. This reporting period updates information for June-November 2019 and includes thermal anomalies and intermittent gas-and-steam emissions. Thermal data and satellite imagery are the primary sources of information for this report.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed an increased number of thermal anomalies within 5 km from the summit beginning in late July-early August (figure 38). Two Sentinel-2 thermal satellite images showed faint, roughly linear thermal anomalies, indicative of lava flows trending EW and NS on 7 July 2019 and 6 August, respectively (figure 39). Weak thermal hotspots were briefly detected in late September-early October after a short hiatus in September. No thermal anomalies were recorded in Sentinel-2 past August due to cloud cover; however, gas-and-steam emissions were visible on 7 July and in September (figures 39, 40, and 41).

Figure 38. Thermal anomalies near the crater summit at Bagana during February-November 2019 as recorded by the MIROVA system (Log Radiative Power) increased in frequency and power in early August. A small cluster was detected in early October after a brief pause in activity in early September. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 39. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery showing small thermal anomalies at Bagana between July-August 2019. Left: A very faint thermal anomaly and a gas-and-steam plume is seen on 7 July 2019. Right: Two small thermal anomalies are faintly seen on 6 August 2019. Both Sentinel-2 satellite images with "Atmospheric penetration" (bands 12, 11, 8A) rendering; courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 40. A gas-and-steam plume rising from the summit of Bagana on 18 September 2019. Courtesy of Brendan McCormick Kilbride (University of Manchester).

The Deep Carbon Observatory (DCO) scientific team partnered with the Rabaul Volcano Observatory and the Bougainville Disaster Office to observe activity at Bagana and collect gas data using drone technology during two weeks of field work in mid-September 2019. For this field work, the major focus was to understand the composition of the volcanic gas emitted at Bagana and measure the concentration of these gases. Since Bagana is remote and difficult to climb, research about its gas emissions has been limited. The recent advancements in drone technology has allowed for new data collection at the summit of Bagana (figure 41). Most of the emissions consisted of water vapor, according to Brendan McCormick Kilbride, one of the volcanologists on this trip. During 14-19 September there was consistently a strong gas-and-steam plume from Bagana (figure 42).

Figure 41. Degassing plumes seen from drone footage 100 m above the summit of Bagana. Top: Zoomed out view of the summit of Bagana degassing. Bottom: Closer perspective of the gases emitted from Bagana. Courtesy of Kieran Wood (University of Bristol) and the Bristol Flight Laboratory.

Figure 42. Photos of gas-and-steam plumes rising from Bagana between 14-19 September 2019. Courtesy of Brendan McCormick Kilbride (University of Manchester).

Geologic Background. Bagana volcano, occupying a remote portion of central Bougainville Island, is one of Melanesia's youngest and most active volcanoes. This massive symmetrical cone was largely constructed by an accumulation of viscous andesitic lava flows. The entire edifice could have been constructed in about 300 years at its present rate of lava production. Eruptive activity is frequent and characterized by non-explosive effusion of viscous lava that maintains a small lava dome in the summit crater, although explosive activity occasionally producing pyroclastic flows also occurs. Lava flows form dramatic, freshly preserved tongue-shaped lobes up to 50 m thick with prominent levees that descend the flanks on all sides.

Information Contacts: MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); Brendan McCormick Kilbride, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom (URL: https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/brendan.mccormickkilbride.html, Twitter: https://twitter.com/BrendanVolc); Kieran Wood, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1QU, United Kingdom (URL: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/engineering/people/kieran-t-wood/index.html, Twitter: https://twitter.com/DrKieranWood, video posted at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A7Hx645v0eU); University of Bristol Flight Laboratory, Bristol BS8 1QU, United Kingdom (Twitter: https://twitter.com/UOBFlightLab).

Kerinci, located in Sumatra, Indonesia, is a highly active volcano characterized by explosive eruptions with ash plumes and gas-and-steam emissions. The most recent eruptive episode began in April 2018 and included intermittent explosions with ash plumes. Volcanism continued from June-November 2019 with ongoing intermittent gas-and-steam and ash plumes. The primary source of information for this report comes from Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and MAGMA Indonesia.

Brown- to gray-colored ash clouds drifting in different directions were reported by PVMBG, the Darwin VAAC, and MAGMA Indonesia between June and early November 2019. Ground observations, satellite imagery, and weather models were used to monitor the plume, which ranged from 4.3 to 4.9 km altitude, or about 500-1,100 m above the summit. On 7 June 2019 at 0604 a gray ash emission rose 800 m above the summit, drifting E, according to a ground observer. An ash plume on 12 July rose to 4 km altitude and drifted SW, as determined by satellite imagery and weather models. An eruption produced a gray ash cloud on 31 July that rose to 4.6 km altitude and drifted NE and E, according to PVMBG and the Darwin VAAC (figure 17). Another ash cloud rose up to 4.3 km altitude on 3 August. On 2 September a possible ash plume rose to a maximum altitude of 4.9 km and drifted WSW, according to the Darwin VAAC advisory.

Figure 17. A gray ash plume at Kerinci rose roughly 800 m above the summit on 31 July 2019 and drifted NE and E. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Brown ash emissions rose to 4.4 km altitude at 1253 on 6 October, drifting WSW. Similar plumes reached 4.6 km altitude twice on 30 October and moved NE, SE, and E at 0614 and WSW at 1721, based on ground observations. On 1-2 November, ground observers saw brown ash emissions rising up to 4.3 km drifting ESE. Between 3 and 5 November the brown ash plumes rose 100-500 m above the summit, according to PVMBG.

Gas emissions continued to be observed through November, as reported by PVMBG and identified in satellite imagery (figure 18). Seismicity that included volcanic earthquakes also continued between June and early November, when the frequency decreased.

Figure 18. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery showing a typical white gas-and-steam plume at Kerinci on 9 August 2019. Sentinel-2 satellite image with "Atmospheric penetration" (bands 12, 11, 8A) rendering; courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. Gunung Kerinci in central Sumatra forms Indonesia's highest volcano and is one of the most active in Sumatra. It is capped by an unvegetated young summit cone that was constructed NE of an older crater remnant. There is a deep 600-m-wide summit crater often partially filled by a small crater lake that lies on the NE crater floor, opposite the SW-rim summit. The massive 13 x 25 km wide volcano towers 2400-3300 m above surrounding plains and is elongated in a N-S direction. Frequently active, Kerinci has been the source of numerous moderate explosive eruptions since its first recorded eruption in 1838.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

The long-term activity at Bezymianny has been dominated by almost continuous thermal anomalies, moderate gas-steam emissions, dome growth, lava flows, and an occasional ash explosion (BGVN 44:06). The volcano is monitored by the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT. Throughout the reporting period of June to November 2019, the Aviation Colour Code remained Yellow (second lowest of four levels).

According to KVERT weekly reports, lava dome growth continued in June through mid-July 2019. Thereafter the reports did not mention dome growth, but indicated that moderate gas-and-steam emissions (figure 32) continued through November. The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) volcano hotspot detection system, based on analysis of MODIS data, detected hotspots within 5 km of the summit almost every day. KVERT also reported a thermal anomaly over the volcano almost daily, except when it was obscured by clouds. Infrared satellite imagery often showed thermal anomalies generated by lava flows or dome growth (figure 33).

Figure 32. Photo of Bezymianny showing fumarolic activity on 4 July 2019. Photo by O. Girina (IVS FEB RAS, KVERT); courtesy of KVERT.

Figure 33. Typical infrared satellite images of Bezymianny showing thermal anomalies in the summit crater, including a lava flow to the WNW. Top: 21 August 2019 with SWIR filter (bands 12, 8A, 4). Bottom: 17 September 2019 with Atmospheric Penetration filter (bands 12, 11, 8A). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. Prior to its noted 1955-56 eruption, Bezymianny had been considered extinct. The modern volcano, much smaller in size than its massive neighbors Kamen and Kliuchevskoi, was formed about 4700 years ago over a late-Pleistocene lava-dome complex and an ancestral edifice built about 11,000-7000 years ago. Three periods of intensified activity have occurred during the past 3000 years. The latest period, which was preceded by a 1000-year quiescence, began with the dramatic 1955-56 eruption. This eruption, similar to that of St. Helens in 1980, produced a large horseshoe-shaped crater that was formed by collapse of the summit and an associated lateral blast. Subsequent episodic but ongoing lava-dome growth, accompanied by intermittent explosive activity and pyroclastic flows, has largely filled the 1956 crater.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS), 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/eng/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Mayon, located in the Philippines, is a highly active stratovolcano with recorded historical eruptions dating back to 1616. The most recent eruptive episode began in early January 2018 that consisted of phreatic explosions, steam-and-ash plumes, lava fountaining, and pyroclastic flows (BGVN 43:04). The previous report noted small but distinct thermal anomalies, gas-and-steam plumes, and slight inflation (BGVN 44:05) that continued to occur from May into mid-October 2019. This report includes information based on daily bulletins from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) and Sentinel-2 satellite imagery.

Between May and October 2019, white gas-and-steam plumes rose to a maximum altitude of 800 m on 17 May. PHIVOLCS reported that faint summit incandescence was frequently observed at night from May-July and Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery showed weaker thermal anomalies in September and October (figure 49); the last anomaly was identified on 12 October. Average SO₂ emissions as measured by PHIVOLCS generally varied between 469-774 tons/day; the high value of the period was on 25 July, with 1,171 tons/day. Small SO₂ plumes were detected by the TROPOMI satellite instrument a few times during May-September 2019 (figure 50).

Figure 49. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery of Mayon between May-October 2019. Small thermal anomalies were recorded in satellite imagery from the summit and some white gas-and-steam plumes are visible. Top left: 30 May 2019. Top right: 9 June 2019. Bottom left: 22 September 2019. Bottom right: 12 October 2019. Sentinel-2 satellite images with "Atmospheric penetration" (bands 12, 11, 8A) rendering; courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 50. Small SO2 plumes rising from Mayon during May-September 2019 recorded in DU (Dobson Units). Top left: 28 May 2019. Top right: 26 July 2019. Bottom left: 16 August 2019. Bottom right: 23 September 2019. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Continuous GPS data has shown slight inflation since June 2018, corroborated by precise leveling data taken on 9-17 April, 16-25 July, and 23-30 October 2019. Elevated seismicity and occasional rockfall events were detected by the seismic monitoring network from PHIVOLCS from May to July; recorded activity decreased in August. Activity reported by PHIVOLCS in September-October 2019 consisted of frequent gas-and-steam emissions, two volcanic earthquakes, and no summit incandescence.

Geologic Background. Beautifully symmetrical Mayon, which rises above the Albay Gulf NW of Legazpi City, is the Philippines' most active volcano. The structurally simple edifice has steep upper slopes averaging 35-40 degrees that are capped by a small summit crater. Historical eruptions date back to 1616 and range from Strombolian to basaltic Plinian, with cyclical activity beginning with basaltic eruptions, followed by longer term andesitic lava flows. Eruptions occur predominately from the central conduit and have also produced lava flows that travel far down the flanks. Pyroclastic flows and mudflows have commonly swept down many of the approximately 40 ravines that radiate from the summit and have often devastated populated lowland areas. A violent eruption in 1814 killed more than 1,200 people and devastated several towns.

Information Contacts: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), Department of Science and Technology, University of the Philippines Campus, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines (URL: http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://SO₂.gsfc.nasa.gov/).

Merapi is an active volcano north of the city of Yogyakarta (figure 79) that has a recent history of dome growth and collapse, resulting in block-and-ash flows that killed over 400 in 2010, while an estimated 10,000-20,000 lives were saved by evacuations. The edifice contains an active dome at the summit, above the Gendol drainage down the SE flank (figure 80). The current eruption episode began in May 2018 and dome growth was observed from 11 August 2018-onwards. This Bulletin summarizes activity during April through September 2019 and is based on information from Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG, the Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology, a branch of PVMBG), Sutopo of Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), MAGMA Indonesia, along with observations by Øystein Lund Andersen and Brett Carr of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.

Figure 79. Merapi volcano is located north of Yogyakarta in Central Java. Photo courtesy of Øystein Lund Andersen.

Figure 80. A view of the Gendol drainage where avalanches and block-and-ash flows are channeled from the active Merapi lava dome. The Gendol drainage is approximately 400 m wide at the summit. Courtesy of Brett Carr, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.

At the beginning of April the rate of dome growth was relatively low, with little morphological change since January, but the overall activity of Merapi was considered high. Magma extrusion above the upper Gendol drainage resulted in rockfalls and block-and-ash flows out to 1.5 km from the dome, which were incandescent and visible at night. Five block-and-ash flows were recorded on 24 April, reaching as far as 1.2 km down the Gendol drainage. The volume of the dome was calculated to be 466,000 m3 on 9 April, a slight decrease from the previous week. Weak gas plumes reached a maximum of 500 m above the dome throughout April.

Six block-and-ash flows were generated on 5 May, lasting up to 77 seconds. Throughout May there were no significant changes to the dome morphology but the volume had decreased to 458,000 by 4 May according to drome imagery analysis. Lava extrusion continued above the Gendol drainage, producing rockfalls and small block-and-ash flows out to 1.2 km (figure 81). Gas plumes were observed to reach 400 m above the top of the crater.

Figure 81. An avalanche from the Merapi summit dome on 17 May 2019. The incandescent blocks traveled down to 850 m away from the dome. Courtesy of Sutopo, BNPB.

There were a total of 72 avalanches and block-and-ash flows from 29 January to 1 June, with an average distance of 1 km and a maximum of 2 km down the Gendol drainage. Photographs taken by Øystein Lund Andersen show the morphological change to the lava dome due to the collapse of rock and extruding lava down the Gendol drainage (figures 82 and 83). Block-and-ash flows were recorded on 17 and 20 June to a distance of 1.2 km, and a webcam image showed an incandescent flow on 26 June (figure 84). Throughout June gas plumes reached a maximum of 250 m above the top of the crater

Figure 82. The development of the Merapi summit dome from 2 June 2018 to 17 June 2019. Courtesy of Øystein Lund Andersen.

Figure 83. Photos taken of the Merapi summit lava dome in June 2019. Top: This nighttime time-lapse photograph shows incandescence at the south-facing side of the dome on the 16 June. Middle: A closeup of a small rockfall from the dome on 17 June. Bottom: A gas plume accompanying a small rockfall on 17 June. Courtesy of Øystein Lund Andersen.

Figure 84. Blocks from an incandescent rockfall off the Merapi dome reached out to 1 km down the Gendol drainage on 26 June 2019. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Analysis of drone images taken on 4 July gave an updated dome volume of 475,000 m3, a slight increase but with little change in the morphology (figure 85). Block-and-ash flows traveled 1.1 km down the Gendol drainage on 1 July, 1 km on the 13th, and 1.1 km on the 14th, some of which were seen at night as incandescent blocks fell from the dome (figure 86). During the week of 19-25 July there were four recorded block-and-ash flows reaching 1.1 km, and flows traveled out to around 1 km on the 24th, 27th, and 31st. The morphology of the dome continued to be relatively stable due to the extruding lava falling into the Gendol drainage. Gas plumes reached 300 m above the top of the crater during July.

Figure 85. The Merapi dome on 30 July 2019 producing a weak plume. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Figure 86. Incandescent rocks from the hot lava dome at the summit of Merapi form rockfalls down the Gendol drainage on 14 July 2019. Courtesy of Øystein Lund Andersen.

During the week of 5-11 August the dome volume was calculated to be 461,000 m3, a slight decrease from the week before with little morphological changes due to the continued lava extrusion collapsing into the Gendol drainage. There were five block-and-ash flows reaching a maximum of 1.2 km during 2-8 August. Two flows were observed on the 13th and 14th reaching 950 m, out to 1.9 km on the 20th and 22nd, and to 550 m on the 24th. There were 16 observed flows that reached 500-1,000 m on 25-27 August, with an additional flow out to 2 km at 1807 on the 27th (figure 87). Gas plumes reached a maximum of 350 m through the month.

Figure 87. An incandescent rockfall from the Merapi dome that reached 2 km down the Gendol drainage on 27 August 2019. Courtesy of BPPTKG.

Brett Carr was conducting field work at Merapi during 12-26 September. During this time the lava extrusion was low (below 1 m3 per second). He observed small rockfalls with blocks a couple of meters in size, traveling about 50-200 m down the drainage every hour or so, producing small plumes as they descended and resulting in incandescence on the dome at night. Small dome collapse events produced block-and-ash flows down the drainage once or twice per day (figure 88) and slightly larger flows just over 1 km long a couple of times per week.

Figure 88. A rockfall on the Merapi dome, towards the Gendol drainage at 0551 on 20 September 2019. Courtesy of Brett Carr, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.

The dome volume was 468,000 m3 by 19 September, a slight increase from the previous calculation but again with little morphological change. Two block-and-ash flows were observed out to 600 m on 9 September and seven occurred on the 9th out to 500-1,100 m. Two occurred on the 14th down to 750-900 m, three occurred on 17, 20, and 21 September to a maximum distance of 1.2 km, and three more out to 1.5 km through the 26th. A VONA (Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation) was issued on the 22nd due to a small explosion producing an ash plume up to approximately 3.8 km altitude (about 800 m above the summit) and minor ashfall to 15 km SW. This was followed by a block-and-ash flow reaching as far as 1.2 km and lasting for 125 seconds (figure 89). Preceding the explosion there was an increase in temperature at several locations on the dome. Weak gas plumes were observed up to 100 m above the crater throughout the month.

Figure 89. An explosion at Merapi on 22 September 2019 was followed by a block-and-ash flow that reached 1.2 km down the Gendol drainage. Courtesy of BPPTKG.

Geologic Background. Merapi, one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta. It is the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain extending NNW to Ungaran volcano. Growth of Old Merapi during the Pleistocene ended with major edifice collapse perhaps about 2000 years ago, leaving a large arcuate scarp cutting the eroded older Batulawang volcano. Subsequently growth of the steep-sided Young Merapi edifice, its upper part unvegetated due to frequent eruptive activity, began SW of the earlier collapse scarp. Pyroclastic flows and lahars accompanying growth and collapse of the steep-sided active summit lava dome have devastated cultivated lands on the western-to-southern flanks and caused many fatalities during historical time.

Information Contacts: Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG), Center for Research and Development of Geological Disaster Technology (URL: http://merapi.bgl.esdm.go.id/, Twitter: @BPPTKG); Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/, Twitter: https://twitter.com/BNPB_Indonesia); Øystein Lund Andersen? (Twitter: @OysteinLAnderse, URL: http://www.oysteinlundandersen.com); Sutopo Purwo Nugroho, BNPB (Twitter: @Sutopo_PN, URL: https://twitter.com/Sutopo_PN); Brett Carr, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, NY, USA (URL: https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/user/bcarr).

Our last report covered generally low-level activity at Arenal through September 2007 (BGVN 32:09). Behavior then included pyroclastic flows to a runout distance of ~ 1 km and a new lava flow emerging from Crater C. This report covers the interval October 2007?June 2008 and originated from those of both the Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica- Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) and (ICE).

Impressive incandescent avalanches (block-and-ash flows or pyroclastic flows) traveled down several flanks during June 2008. At least portions of those avalanches broke off from a cone in Crater C and active lava flows high on the edifice.

During the reporting interval, Crater C continued to produce lava flows, gases, sporadic Strombolian eruptions, and avalanches from the lava flow fronts. Observers noticed acid rain and small amounts of ejected pyroclastic material impacting the NE, E, and SE flanks. They also cited loss of vegetation, steep slopes, poorly consolidated material, and high precipitation as factors that triggered small cold avalanches in Calle de Arenas, Manolo, Guillermina, and the river Agua Caliente. Crater D remained fumarolic. Except for the June avalanches, eruptive activity generally remained modest. Some reports noted that the eruptive vigor continued to drop both in terms of the number of eruptions and the amount of ejected pyroclastic material.

OVSICORI-UNA reported that by March 2008, the flow of lava down the S flank had stopped, but a new flow that had begun in February 2008 toward the SW flank was still active. A few eruptions produced ash columns that exceeded 500 m above the vent.

During April 2008, lava moving toward the S flank descended to about 1,400 m elevation. Some blocks had detached near the border of the crater. Sporadically small avalanches occurred and some blocks managed to reach vegetation below, igniting small fires. Some April eruptions produced dark gray ash columns.

Glowing avalanches of June. Jorge Barquero sent us a report on Arenal's behavior during June 2008. Prior to the June events a distinct cone had appeared in Crater C. Its steep sides generated small avalanches of loosened rocks. At about 1000 on 6 June, that cone collapsed, causing a pyroclastic (block-and-ash) flow that descended SE, forming a gully or channel, and laying down a deposit that fanned out at the base of Arenal. Lava also descended into or towards the gully, causing small avalanches.

Some residents heard noises and felt ashfall starting at 0600 on 10 June. At about 0800 these block-and-ash flows became larger. The wind blew ash NW to 4 km from the crater.

After 1730 on 14 June, the failure of the lava flow front sent down an avalanche more violent than those earlier. An hour later the largest block-and-ash flow of the month descended. It descended the channel and produced a large quantity of ash that blew SE and W to distances of 6 km. The area of greatest impact was in the SW portion of the Arenal National Park, where the branches of some vegetation cracked under the weight of the ash. More block-and-ash flows were also observed on 15 and 18 June.

On 11 June Eliecer Duarte and E. Fernández (OVSICORI-UNA) visited the distal parts of the new deposits, documenting the new flow field (figures 102 and 103). The distal area occurred at ~ 900 m elevation on Arenal's outer margins where the slope changes abruptly. A series of alternating lobes contained deposits that were 500°C on 11 June. The individual lobe's thickness reached up to about 3-4 m. The heterogeneous nature of the often angular blocks contrasted with a gray and quite sandy matrix, and included both pre-existing material eroded from the valley walls and more recent juvenile material from the summit. Conspicuous blocls from the block-and-ash flow (10% were 2-3 m in diameter and ~ 20% were ~ 1 m in diameter) are mostly juvenile material from the lava flow. The margins of the fan were covered by a fine dust layer several centimeters thick. On the S flanks, the block-and-ash deposit barely reached a few meters thick. On the N flanks, the deposit reached many tens of meters thick, the result of wind carrying the abundant fine materials in that direction.

Figure 102. A view of the early June 2008 incandescent avalanche deposits on Arenal's S flanks. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Figure 103. Previously incandescent avalanche deposits at Arenal seen on 11 June 2008. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Major S-flank avalanches reported on 6 and 10 June 2008 eroded a radially oriented gully (an avalanche chute). Later avalanches down this direction tended to form channelized deposits. A dark colored thick lava flow present at the summit (figure 104) provided an important source of materials in the deposits. The S-flank avalanches funneled through the gully, fracturing particles into finer grain sizes and generating columns of ash. During the visit, the team observed several avalanches containing large blocks that were similarly reduced in volume as they bounced through the gully. Some of these blocks arrived at the lower part of the fan with temperatures between 800 and 1,000°C. The large blocks seemingly cracked as the result of thermal shock, a process accelerated during a strong rainstorm.

Figure 104. Arenal's summit as seen looking up the new avalanche chute (steaming). At the head of the chute lies a thick black lava flow (labeled lava front "Frente de colada"). Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Geologic Background. Conical Volcán Arenal is the youngest stratovolcano in Costa Rica and one of its most active. The 1670-m-high andesitic volcano towers above the eastern shores of Lake Arenal, which has been enlarged by a hydroelectric project. Arenal lies along a volcanic chain that has migrated to the NW from the late-Pleistocene Los Perdidos lava domes through the Pleistocene-to-Holocene Chato volcano, which contains a 500-m-wide, lake-filled summit crater. The earliest known eruptions of Arenal took place about 7000 years ago, and it was active concurrently with Cerro Chato until the activity of Chato ended about 3500 years ago. Growth of Arenal has been characterized by periodic major explosive eruptions at several-hundred-year intervals and periods of lava effusion that armor the cone. An eruptive period that began with a major explosive eruption in 1968 ended in December 2010; continuous explosive activity accompanied by slow lava effusion and the occasional emission of pyroclastic flows characterized the eruption from vents at the summit and on the upper western flank.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, E. Duarte, W. Sáenz, V. Barboza, M. Martinez, E. Malavassi, and R. Sáenz, Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Jorge Barquero Hernandez, Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), Apartado 5 -2400, Desamparados, San José, Costa Rica.

A scientific expedition in February 2008 observed that the morphology of the volcano had changed considerably since 2005. The eruption that began in May 2005 (BGVN 30:05) ejected lava and tephra that built a new scoria cone NE of the previous central cone. Lava flows covered all of the earlier flows, and several new spatter cones were formed. Fumarolic activity was continuing in February, with a large amount of steam from the central cone.

Activity seemingly decreased in late March 2006, as shown by a significant decline in the number and frequency of thermal anomalies (BGVN 32:07). However, intermittent anomalies continued until 5 October 2007, and ash plumes were seen in satellite imagery on 23 December 2007 (BGVN 33:02). Thermal anomalies detected by MODIS instruments began to be detected again on 12 May 2008 at 1935 (UTC), suggesting a renewal of eruptive activity. Anomalies continued to be identified on 19 days through the end of June.

During 15-30 June 2008 observers on an Indian Coast Guard patrol boat could see red glow from the central cone summit at night from a distance of about 10 km. There were also twelve earthquakes between 27 and 29 June, centered SW of Port Blair (140 km SW of Barren Island) in the Andaman Islands.

Geologic Background. Barren Island, a possession of India in the Andaman Sea about 135 km NE of Port Blair in the Andaman Islands, is the only historically active volcano along the N-S volcanic arc extending between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar). It is the emergent summit of a volcano that rises from a depth of about 2250 m. The small, uninhabited 3-km-wide island contains a roughly 2-km-wide caldera with walls 250-350 m high. The caldera, which is open to the sea on the west, was created during a major explosive eruption in the late Pleistocene that produced pyroclastic-flow and -surge deposits. Historical eruptions have changed the morphology of the pyroclastic cone in the center of the caldera, and lava flows that fill much of the caldera floor have reached the sea along the western coast.

Information Contacts: Dornadula Chandrasekharam, Dept. Earth Sciences, Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India (URL: http://www.geos.iitb.ac.in/index.php/dc); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).

Follow previous reports of May 2008 activity (BGVN 33:04, 33:05), this report summarizes Chaitén's behavior from 31 May through 25 July 2008. The bulk of this report came from SERNAGEOMIN (Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería) and to some extent ONEMI (Oficina Nacional de Emergencia - Ministerio del Interior). A web camera located on a tower in Chaitén town and aimed upstream along the Blanco (Chaitén) river has helped authorities assess both the state of the volcano's plumes and the river (see URL in Information Contacts). In a later section are included some descriptions and photos by Richard Roscoe taken on 9 July.

On 3 June it was reported that lateral blasts or surges (or related processes) had devastated ~ 25 km² of native forest. Other behavior during this interval included consistent ash plumes, which were generally present when the volcano was visible, and continued growth of the intracrater dome and tephra cone. Vent areas and the dome and tephra cone's morphology changed as the dome grew more elongate.

The late May to early June behavior included a short-term seismic decrease, and a weakened eruptive column. During the reporting interval, the column was often noticeably weaker than in early May, but the seismicity was still relatively high. The two main seismic instruments monitoring the volcano (figure 13) registered numerous sustained events through late July, which began to cluster NNE of Chaitén. Some of the earthquakes were up to M 2.6.

Figure 13. Monitoring instrumentation includes two telemetered seismic stations, PUMA (short for Pumalín) and STAB (short for Santa Barbara), which sit adjacent the coast and monitor Chaitén volcano (Cv). On 12 July the stations detected two earthquakes centered NE of the volcano along a major fault trace there (the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault system). The colored versions of the map distinguish second-order faults, which mostly have left-lateral kinematics (red lines), and eroded scarps (yellow lines). Snow-covered Michinmahuida stratovolcano is also a prominent feature (M, along the E margin of map), as is the town of Chaitén (Ct). Courtesy of Luis E. Lara.

SERNAGEOMIN repeatedly interpreted the earthquakes to signify magma ascending from depth. If this magma reached the surface, they noted, vigorous eruptions might return. The high-viscosity of rhyolitic magmas seen here increases potential explosivity. This rhyolitic eruption at Chaitén is the first historically at a monitored volcano. The last significant rhyolitic eruption was at Novarupta volcano in Alaska in 1912.

Chaitén town has largely survived the lahars thus far. A deeper concern is that the growing dome and tephra cone sent bouncing rocks and smaller debris into the caldera's moat. In an early July SERNAGEOMIN report, the authors noted that the caldera's breach, located on the S, appeared blocked by recently eroded products. Small lakes were also then seen on the crater floor. Since the moat area drains to the S through this breach and feeds into the Blanco river, temporary dams in the moat area might seal the caldera's outflow, only to suddenly fail and release large volumes of debris towards the town. Despite this concern, as of 25 July such an event had been absent; however, on 12 July a sudden flood struck Chaitén town (see below).

Activity during June 2008. On 1 June, Chaitén's plume blew W, affecting Chiloé island (including the towns of Queilen, Lebjn, Chonchi, Dalcahue, and Castro, the island's capital). These conditions thwarted work on the seismic network. On 2 June dense fog affected the Gulf of Corcovado, especially adjacent Chiloé island, an atmosphere attributed to remobilization of air-fall ash by wind. That day, a helicopter managed to take off and the view enabled scientists to see an eruptive column to no higher than 3.0 km altitude dispersing SSE.

Seismicity on 2 July was higher than the previous days. Abundant were VT earthquakes, followed by long- period (LP) earthquakes. Between 1 and 2 July, seismic stations registered an average of 5 VT earthquakes per hour (below M 2). At some stations, some of the LP signals were sporadic, lasting less than a minute.

A 5 June SERNAGEOMIN report noted that explosions diminished gradually. Although ash was present, vapor dominated the emissions. A 3 June aerial inspection revealed that the dome's volume and footprint had increased, although it still had not reached the caldera's N wall.

The effects of N and NE flank blasts (or surges, pyroclastic flows, or related processes) were noted during aerial observations from the 3 June flight. The surges had scorched and burned an area of native forest. On this day observers computed an estimate of the damaged area, ~ 2,500 hectares (~ 25 km²). An undated photo looking down on part of the destruction appeared in BGVN 33:05 and more photos appear below. Several SERNAGEOMIN reports mentioned small pyroclastic flows during early and mid-May (12 May in particular, BGVN 33:05). Bulletin editors take the 3 June estimate as reflecting the sum of all devastation to that point in time.

On 3 and 4 June the plume's top stood below 3 km altitude. A 10 June SERNAGEOMIN report noted the continued lowered eruptive and seismic intensity through that time. Plumes continued to remain under 3 km altitude and they still affected air travel.

On 12 June observers at Chaitén town noticed tephra-bearing emissions. Noises had emanated from the volcano that day and the previous one. The SERNAGEOMIN report associated these emissions with two new vents seen on the S flank of the old dome, where craters had developed. Vapor-rich plumes had emerged from these areas and the observers inferred that the vents were possibly due to magma-water interactions. In addition, sudden floods swept into Chaitén town in the afternoon on 12 June, despite a lack of evidence for greater rains across the region. They were inferred as related to the emissions the same day.

Seismicity beneath the volcano on 12 June increased in the morning both in terms of the number of earthquakes and their magnitudes. Most of these events were less than M 2. Two prominent earthquakes struck ~ 5 km farther NE of the volcano, along the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault zone.

The 22 June report noted that observers looking at the contact between the old and new domes had seen two craters there that emitted ash plumes. The observers also noted near-source falls of both blocks and ash.

The same report said that a 17 June aerial inspection documented an ash plume to over 2 km over the volcano's summit that blew N and NW. Roars and associated noise from the eruption included the sound of an explosion at 1430 on 17 June. The resulting column rose to a height above the summit of over 3 km but later dropped to 2 km. Emissions continued from a crater S of the contact between the old and new domes. Immediately to the W of this crater, a new and growing crater issued increasingly large emissions of ash and gas. Numerous smaller vents were also apparent, chiefly emitting steam. Loose material covered parts of the old dome, forming a ring-shaped structure (a tephra cone). That structure's steep sides and inner and outer walls occasionally underwent mass wasting. Poor weather during 19-25 June halted aerial inspections then, but ash fell in Chaitén town and to the W and SE, as well as Queilen and other portions of E Chiloé island.

Following 20 June, seismicity remained stable with ~ 40-45 earthquakes per day. Sporadic numbers of VT earthquakes took place; there was no change in the number of LP earthquakes. Investigators inferred a lack of pressure increase in the volcanic system. During bad weather on 23-25 June some earthquakes again occurred on the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault zone, with epicenters in an area 2-3 km E of the volcano. A power outage struck midday on 25 June. A back-up power supply (UPS) worked for a while, but ultimately the outage caused several hours of lost seismic data at the Queilen processing center. Available data suggested a small increase in both the number and amplitudes of earthquakes during 24-25 June. During 0000-1200 on 25 June, instruments recorded 35 VT earthquakes, and four of those were M 2.2; LP earthquakes were absent.

Seismicity during the days leading up the SERNAGEOMIN report issued on 27 June reflected VT earthquakes generally below M 2, reaching 50 per day. An exception was on the 25th when four earthquakes exceeded M 2.0.

July 2008. On 1 July an ash column rose ~ 3 km above the top of the new dome. It blew N and NE. An aerial observation at close hand discerned two roughly vertical, sub-parallel eruption plumes issuing from vents in the crater. One plume, most active in recent weeks, came from a sector S of the new dome. The second plume came from a sector more to the W of the new dome. A photo of the scene in the 3 July SERNAGEOMIN report also depicted the area of eruption largely engulfed in white clouds from numerous fumaroles on the dome. On 3 July SERNAGEOMIN began a series of reports on unrest at Llaima stratovolcano (which went to Red alert on 10 July). Around 16 July a weather front also moved in across the Chiloé island region. Consecutive SERNAGEOMIN reports discussing Chaitén were only issued on 3 and 21 July, with a lack of much discussion on that volcano for the interval 3-15 July.

During 15-20 July seismicity stood relatively high, with an average of 350-400 VT earthquakes per day. On 20 July more than 20 earthquakes surpassed M 2.6. The next reports noted that on 21 and 22 July VT earthquakes occurred 330 times per day; 60 of those were near M 2.6, and that the number of earthquakes decreased on 24 July. Still, some of the minor earthquakes reached M 2.6 and were detected up to 300 km away. Seismic data around this time were interpreted to reflect magma at depth moving towards the surface, possibly implying a reactivation of the system, although the earthquake's depth was poorly constrained.

Chaitén's plume blew E at ~ 2 km altitude above the summit and appeared weaker than usual when seen as the weather cleared after 1500 on 23 July. During 22-24 July, earthquakes had increased both in number and magnitude, with the largest M ~ 2.6.

A new area of epicenters appeared during 22 and 23 July at a location 6 km ENE of the volcano. Seismic stations located 176 and 296 km from Chaitén, respectively monitoring the volcanoes Calbuco and Puyehue-Cordón Caulle, recorded these events, the first such occurrence since the eruption began. Previously, conspicuous epicenters had mainly occurred to the S and SE. Preliminary hypocenter calculations suggested the larger earthquakes in this NNE area were deeper, at 10-15 km depth.

Arrival times of S- and P-waves at stations Pumalín and Santa Bárbara indicated that the smaller magnitude earthquakes still occurred S and SE of Chaitén, whereas the larger magnitude earthquakes struck in the area 6 km ENE. An inspection flight carried viewers to the N and NE of the volcano on 24 July where they saw that the single active central vent sat to the S of the new dome. The emissions then were intermittent, white, and ash poor. When strongest, a thin plume rose to under 2 km altitude, with strong winds causing dispersion to the S and SE. When viewed on 24 July, the new dome also contained a significant depression in the S sector, at a point immediately N of the main active vent mentioned above. This depression emitted steam and gases. The new dome seemed to have decreased its growth rate, at least in the N sector. Strong steaming emerged from base of the dome's E sector. The observers looked around the new dome on the NW, N and NE sides, and they saw neither ponded areas nor lakes. During 24-27 July, the ash column rose to 2.5 km and occasionally 3.0 km altitude. The most active vent was the previously mentioned one located S of the new dome. The plume blew N and NW where it affected various localities along the coast.

Floating pumice. By early June, the white pumice from the eruption accumulated at river mouths to the volcano's W. Some fragments of pumice were as large as 40 cm in diameter. In addition to the Blanco river, those carrying the pumice included the Yelcho and Negro (respectively entering the sea 2 km and 5 km S of Chaitén town). Pumice rafts in the Gulf were seen in May (BGVN 33:05). During June and at least early July, along beaches of Chiloé (and particularly at Lelbjn, 12 km N of Queilen, a town almost directly W of Chaitén town) floating pumice continued to arrive. This area lies 60-100 km across Corcorvado gulf from the mouth of the Blanco river at Chaitén town. The pumice deposits, which included tree trunks and other debris, covered a thin zone along the shoreline stretching ~ 20 m from the sea's edge when photographed the afternoon of 1 July.

Roscoe's July 2008 photos. One of the subjects Roscoe presented on his PhotoVolcanica website was Chaitén's N devastated area, and some of those photos appear here (figures 14 and 15). The captions were brief and omitted the direction the camera was aimed. He visited the devastated area on 9 July 2008.

Figure 14. One of the parts of the devastation zone containing large lithic blocks (~ 1 m across), the most conspicuous being the one at left, which may have been perched above fallen timber. Trees here fell away from the viewer. Courtesy of Richard Roscoe, PhotoVolcanica.com.

Figure 15. Drainages redirected by Chaitén's eruption caused erosion of this road to the volcano's N. Courtesy of Richard Roscoe, PhotoVolcanica.com.

Roscoe noted that in the area he photographed, "Most trees were snapped off a couple of meters above the ground. The [pyroclastic] flow does not appear to have been hot enough to burn the leaves off the trees at the point we visited at the base of the volcano. Many branches with brown leaves were lying around. Very little pumice was found in the area although much of it may have been swept away during subsequent heavy rainfall."

In Chaitén town, Roscoe documented damage-mitigation and salvaging efforts (figure 16). Two of Roscoe's photos showed heavy equipment (a large backhoe and a bulldozer) reshaping the lahar deposits in an attempt to control encroaching lahars. Other scenes included people retrieving belongings, excavating lahar deposits covering the floor and lower shelves of a grocery store, and improving drainage from and access to their homes.

Figure 16. Work in Chaitén town to strengthen river banks to protect town from lahars. Although laden with tree trunks, the lahars appear quite uniform in color and character, devoid of coarse lithics or large rafted pumices. Courtesy of Richard Roscoe, PhotoVolcanica.com.

Geologic Background. Chaitén is a small, glacier-free caldera with a compound Holocene lava dome located 10 km NE of the town of Chaitén on the Gulf of Corcovado. Early work had identified only a single explosive eruption during the early Holocene prior to the major 2008 eruption, but later work has identified multiple explosive eruptions throughout the Holocene. A rhyolitic obsidian lava dome occupies much of the caldera floor. Obsidian cobbles from this dome found in the Blanco River are the source of prehistorical artifacts from archaeological sites along the Pacific coast as far as 400 km from the volcano to the N and S. The caldera is breached on the SW side by a river that drains to the bay of Chaitén. The first historical eruption, beginning in 2008, produced major rhyolitic explosive activity and growth of a lava dome that filled much of the caldera.

Information Contacts: Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería(SERNAGEOMIN), Avda Sta María No 0104, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.sernageomin.cl/); Oficina Nacional de Emergencia - Ministerio del Interior (ONEMI), Beaucheff 1637 / 1671, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.onemi.cl/); Luis E. Lara, Departamento de Geología Aplicada, SERNAGEOMIN; Richard Roscoe, Photovolcanica.com (URL: http://www.photovolcanica.com/).

Around 2-3 February 2008, a Volcano Discovery tour visited Erta Ale (figures 18-21). Tom Pfeiffer reported that the northern pit crater contained a lake of molten lava ~ 75 m across. Strong spattering and bursting bubbles were seen. At times, the lava lake rose and flooded the lower terrace. During this phase the usual fountains ceased. Richard Roscoe, who also visited during February 2008, presents animations of the flooding on his Photovolcanica website. He also shows photos of strong fountaining associated with falling lava lake levels.

Figure 18. Wide-angle photo showing the lava lake at Erta Ale, February 2008. Taken with fisheye-lens and a digital reflex camera. Courtesy Marco Fulle.

Figure 19. Folds developed in the crust of the lava lake at Erta Ale, February 2008. Courtesy of Tom Pfeiffer (Volcano Discovery).

Figure 20. Rising magmatic gases drove fountains like this one emerging above the surface of the lava lake at Erta Ale, February 2008. Courtesy of Tom Pfeiffer (Volcano Discovery).

Figure 21. Unusual egg-like sulfate structures at Erta Ale in February 2008. The delicate-looking incrustations cover an area of wet fumaroles on the rim of the North crater. Courtesy of Tom Pfeiffer (Volcano Discovery).

Occasionally, magmatic gas released in the middle of the lake created a zone a few meters in diameter where fountains typically lasted ~ 1 minute (figure 20). Thin threads of lava (Pelee's hair) are visible in some lava-fountain photographs. Richard Roscoe also features similar photos. Marco Fulle noted strong spattering when lava was drawn down (subducted) into the lake.

A Volcanologique de Genève (SVG) trip on 8-9 February 2008 noted extensions of ropy lava in the N crater. The lake was little changed from the group's last visit in 2005. The group visited the N Crater, and, given its constant degassing, was able to take gas samples. They also measured the lake's surface temperature (700°C). The descent into this crater, seemingly easy, was made difficult by a mantle of very unstable lava scoria. An elevated level of the lava lake halted a subsequent descent.

References. Rivallin, P., and Mougin, D., 2008, Trip report of Pierrette Rivallin and Dédé Mougin: LAVE Bulletin, no. 79, May 2008.

Geologic Background. Erta Ale is an isolated basaltic shield that is the most active volcano in Ethiopia. The broad, 50-km-wide edifice rises more than 600 m from below sea level in the barren Danakil depression. Erta Ale is the namesake and most prominent feature of the Erta Ale Range. The volcano contains a 0.7 x 1.6 km, elliptical summit crater housing steep-sided pit craters. Another larger 1.8 x 3.1 km wide depression elongated parallel to the trend of the Erta Ale range is located SE of the summit and is bounded by curvilinear fault scarps on the SE side. Fresh-looking basaltic lava flows from these fissures have poured into the caldera and locally overflowed its rim. The summit caldera is renowned for one, or sometimes two long-term lava lakes that have been active since at least 1967, or possibly since 1906. Recent fissure eruptions have occurred on the N flank.

Information Contacts: Tom Pfeiffer, Volcano Discovery (URL: http://www.VolcanoDiscovery.com/); Marco Fulle, Osservatorio Astronomico, Trieste, Italy; Richard Roscoe (URL: http://www.photovolcanica.com/).

According to government authorities in the Ngorongoro district of Tanzania and the 22 March 2008 edition of Arusha Times, nine months after the mountain began continuous eruptive activity (BGVN 33:02), many residents had moved to other villages at a safe distance. Ngorongoro district member of parliament Saning'o Ole Telele told reporters that up to 5,000 people may have moved out of the area. The last major eruption was in August 1966. Since then there had not been an eruption of such magnitude, although notable ones were recorded in 1983, 1993, 2002 and 2006.

Recent observations. Table 19 lists recent observations from April through early July 2008.

On 2 April 2008, Chris Daborn of Tropical Veterinary Services Ltd reported that the color of ash plumes changed from "salty" white to a more inert black, and eruptions were much smaller, barely rising above the mountain. Heavy rains made movement in the area difficult, washing away ash.

Table 19. Summary of visitors to Ol Doinyo Lengai and their brief observations (from a climb, aerial overflight, flank, or satellite) April-early July 2008 (continued from BGVN 33:02). Most of this list is courtesy of Frederick Belton.

Ben Wilhelmi flew over on 7 and 8 April 2008 just prior to an eruption on the 7th and following the start of an eruption on the 8th. The flanks showed newly formed erosion gullies in the recently deposited ash (figure 111). Pilots Wilhelmi and Michael Dalton-Smith observed little activity during early April, although visibility was hampered by atmospheric clouds on several occasions; aerial photos showed no activity on 11 April.

Figure 111. Aerial photographs of Ol Doinyo Lengai crater on (a, top) 7 April and (b, bottom) 8 April 2008. Photos courtesy Ben Wilhelmi.

On 14-16 May 2008, Chris Weber and Marc Szeglat visited. Weber noted that only minor ash eruptions were reported by local Masaai after the eruptions on 8 and 17 April 2008. Some of the evacuated Masaai had returned to their settlements, but part of the livestock had not returned by the middle of May. The fall-out of pyroclastics was still visible around the volcano. Due to a heavy rain season, vegetation damage was not as severe as it could have been. Up to an altitude of ~ 1,000 m the vegetation (mostly 'Elephant grass', normal grass, and some Akazia trees) was undamaged except for the W side, where severe damage occurred as far as 10 km from the summit. Some lahars had occurred on the N and NE sides. The former trekking route was not recommended because of rockfalls and poor conditions. Weber and Szeglat used a very steep route on the SE side (named "simba route"). From ~ 1,000 m altitude ash layers were clearly visible on the ground, but new grass had grown since the eruption. Above ~ 1,500 m on the SE flank all vegetation was covered by pyroclastic material. From an altitude of ~ 2,500 m, additional impacts of volcanic bombs were visible. In the inactive S crater, at their campsite, all vegetation was destroyed, and volcanic bomb impacts from the explosive events on April 2008 were quite impressive.

The active N crater had a new morphology (figure 112). The N-S diameter of the crater was 300 m and it was 283 m E-W. The crater floor was at ~ 2,740 m elevation, ~ 130 m deep below the W crater rim. Two vents, designated as c1 and c2, were present inside the crater (figure 112). Both vents were strongly degassing. On 15 May 2008, fine powdered ash was ejected until midday. It was not possible to determine which vent was responsible for this. After descent, Weber and Szeglat visited an abandoned Masaai boma (hut) a few kilometers W of the summit where ashfall had forced a family to flee.

Figure 112. (a) Sketch map of Lengai, May 2008, and (b) cross section AB. Two vents were located as c1 and c2 inside the crater; older hornito locations are marked as Txx on the map (see hornitos on sketch map of Lengai as of 23 August 2007 in BGVN 32:11). Courtesy of Chris Weber.

On 8 June Wilhelmi saw a small eruption during a flyover. Photos made by Wilhelmi during overflights on 3, 10, and 12 June showed no activity. However, an ash-poor plume was seen by Fred Belton on 12 June.

On 17 June 2008 a group of Masaai from Engare Sero climbed via the W route through the Pearly Gates, which has been closed for several months. Fred Belton and Paul Hloben climbed on 18 June with a Masaai guide, Peter, and two other Tanzanians Paul Mongi and Mweena Hosa, following the route of the group from the previous day, which was covered by thick ash deposits. The route is subject to danger should there be a significant eruption. Belton's group spent about an hour on the rim of the active cone.

The new active cone covered the former crater floor entirely except for a region just N of the summit. The W, N, and E sides of the former crater were ~ 30 m higher than before and enclosed a deep pit crater with a couple of small vents. To the S, the rim of the new cone rested on the crater floor. To the E and W the new cone merged with and covered up the old rim at the points where it intersects the arc formed by the summit ridge. Thus, there was a section of the former crater floor which was bounded to the N by the new cone's S rim and to the E, S, and W by the original curving summit ridge.

From approximately 0920-1020 the pit crater frequently emitted an ash-poor plume from the SW part of its floor, and there was light ashfall on the rim. Loud rumbling was continuous and occasional sounds of gas jetting and rockfalls were heard amid other noises. Occasionally there was a sloshing/hissing noise resembling the sound of 'lava at depth' often heard in the past, but there was no evidence of lava in the crater. The summit and S crater were not visited due to atmospheric clouds around the summit.

On 18 June, Ben Wilhelmi photographed the climbers with Belton during a flyover (figure 113). No activity was seen the next day, but on 30 June Wilhelmi saw gray plumes emerging. A small crater rim collapse was seen on the S part of the crater wall on 1 July 2008.

Figure 113. View of the crater rim on 18 June 2008 showing four climbers at left center just below the rim. Photo courtesy of Ben Wilhelmi.

Satellite thermal anomalies. Table 20 lists MODIS/MODVOLC thermal anomalies measured between November 2007 through July 2008; MODVOLC is the algorithm for identifying thermal anomalies used by the HIGP Thermal Alerts System Group. On 17 April 2008, as noted in table 19, MODIS data analyzed by Matthieu Kervyn's algorithm MODLEN (sensitive to lower temperature anomalies than MODVOLC) indicated a significant hotspot, showing that activity, although intermittent, continued.

Table 20. MODVOLC thermal anomalies measured by MODIS satellite at Ol Doinyo Lengai from November 2007 through July 2008. Courtesy of the MODIS Thermal Alerts System Group at the Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP).

Geologic Background. The symmetrical Ol Doinyo Lengai is the only volcano known to have erupted carbonatite tephras and lavas in historical time. The prominent stratovolcano, known to the Maasai as "The Mountain of God," rises abruptly above the broad plain south of Lake Natron in the Gregory Rift Valley. The cone-building stage ended about 15,000 years ago and was followed by periodic ejection of natrocarbonatitic and nephelinite tephra during the Holocene. Historical eruptions have consisted of smaller tephra ejections and emission of numerous natrocarbonatitic lava flows on the floor of the summit crater and occasionally down the upper flanks. The depth and morphology of the northern crater have changed dramatically during the course of historical eruptions, ranging from steep crater walls about 200 m deep in the mid-20th century to shallow platforms mostly filling the crater. Long-term lava effusion in the summit crater beginning in 1983 had by the turn of the century mostly filled the northern crater; by late 1998 lava had begun overflowing the crater rim.

Information Contacts: Frederick Belton, Developmental Studies Department, PO Box 16, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA (URL: http://oldoinyolengai.pbworks.com/); Christoph Weber, Volcano Expeditions International (VEI), Muehlweg 11, 74199, Entergruppenbach, Germany (URL: http://www.volcanic-hazards.de/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Matthieu Kervyn De Meerendre, Dept of Geology and Soil Science, Gent University, Krijgslaan 281, S8/A.310, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium (URL: http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~makervyn/).

A report from OVDAS-SERNAGEOMIN (Volcanological Observatory of the Southern Andes ? National Service of Geology and Mining) by Naranjo, Peña, and Moreno (2008) summarized the eruption at Llaima of January through February 2008. This and other reports from OVDAS-SERNAGEOMIN supplements earlier reports (BGVN 33:01) and extends observations through late April 2008.

Summary of January-February 2008 eruption. Shortly after 1730 (local time) on 1 January 2008, Llaima began a new eruptive cycle that was very similar in character to a large eruption that had occurred in February 1957. The 2008 activity was centered at the principal crater, a feature 350 x 450 m in diameter with the major axis trending NW-SE. This new continuous eruptive phase began with strong Strombolian eruptions. Strong ejections of lava fragments fell on the glaciers on the high flanks NE and W of the principal cone (figure 18), generating lahars that flowed ~15 km to reach the Captrén River to the N and the Calbuco River to the W (figure 19). The eruptive plume rose to an altitude of ~ 11 km and blew ESE; ash accumulated to a depth of ~11 cm at a distance of 7 km from the crater.

Figure 18. Satellite images depicting Llaima before and after the recent eruptions. The left image shows Llaima on 17 September 2006 covered with a white blanket of snow and ice; the right image shows Llaima on 22 February 2008 after numerous eruptions, with ash covering the remnants of the glacier. Courtesy of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency-Earth Observation Research Center (JAXA-EORC) Advanced Land-Observing Satellite (ALOS) website.

Figure 19. Map showing areas of principal effects of the eruption at Llaima on 1 January 2008. Courtesy of OVDAS-SERNAGEOMIN.

The 1 January 2008 phase was preceded by a slight increase in tremor and a swarm of low frequency earthquakes, but with an absence of volcano-tectonic (VT) or hybrid (HB) events. On 2 January 2008, the activity began to decline. However, a plume of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) was tracked by satellite (figure 20).

Figure 20. A plume of sulfur dioxide (SO2) was released on 2 January 2008. The initially intense plume thinned as it moved E. On 4 January 2008, the plume passed over Tristan da Cunha. This image, acquired by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on NASA's Aura satellite, shows the progress of that plume from 2-4 January 2008. OMI measures the total column amount of SO2 in Dobson Units. (If all the SO2 in a column of atmosphere is compressed into a flat layer at standard temperature (0°C) and pressure (1 atmosphere), a single Dobson Unit of SO2 would measure 0.01 mm in thickness and would contain 0.0285 grams of SO2/m2.) Courtesy, NASA Earth Observatory website.

An explosion on 7 January 2008 resulted in an ash plume that rose 5 km above the crater and traveled E toward Argentina. This explosion was associated with a low frequency, large magnitude event.

On 9 January, a series of explosions occurred. The seismicity included a swarm of low frequency, high-amplitude events and an abrupt increase in microseismicity that decreased gradually until 14 January and more slowly thereafter. On 18 January, after discrete low frequency tremors, explosions from the crater resulted in a pyroclastic flow on the upper E flank (figure 21).

Figure 21. Pyroclastic flow on Llaima's E flank on 18 January 2008. Courtesy, OVDAS-SERNAGEOMIN and Gentileza M. Yarur.

On 21 January seismic activity increased. This was followed on 25 January by continuous Strombolian activity in the main crater. During the night of 26 January, a significant increase in activity occured. Pyroclastic-flow deposits were noted during 28 January on the E flank.

A lava lake that had formed in the main crater began to overflow the W rim on 3 February and a lava flow descended for 2.5 km, making channels in the ice tens of meters deep. The 'a'a lava flow, which was 30-40 m wide and 10 m thick, lasted until 13 February.

Between 8-13 February, explosions in the main crater propelled incandescent material 200-500 m in the air. Explosions occasionally alternated between N and S cones in the main crater. On 9 February, the Calbuco River was about 1 m higher than the normal level, likely due to melt water from the lava and glacier interaction. Strombolian eruptions from the main crater were observed during an overflight on 10 February. A strong explosion ejected bombs onto the E and NE flanks of the volcano on 12 February. Then, on 13 February, incandescence at the summit was noted. Thereafter seismic activity decreased, with only sporadic low frequency signals. The volcano was quiet until 21 February, when a small explosion occurred. Pyroclastic flows were also observed on 21 February descending the E and possibly the W flanks.

During the January-February eruptive phase, various types of plumes were observed, including steam plumes, sulfur dioxide plumes, small ash plumes, and ash-and-gas plumes. The Alert Level remained at Yellow.

March-April 2008. Fumarolic activity from the central pyroclastic cone in Llaima's main crater reactivated on 13 March and intensified during 15-17 March. SO₂ plumes rose to an altitude of 3.6 km and drifted E. During 20-21 March, incandescent material propelled from the crater was observed at night.

During 28 March-4 April, fumarolic plumes from Llaima drifted several tens of kilometers, mainly to the SE. Explosions produced ash and gas emissions, and on 4 April, incandescence was reflected in a gas-and-ash plume. An overflight of the main crater on 2 April revealed pyroclastic material and ash and gas emissions, accompanied by small explosions, that originated from three cones.

On 24 April 2008, seismicity from Llaima again increased. Bluish gas (SO₂) rose from the main crater, and ash-and-gas plumes associated with explosions rose to an altitude of 4.6 km. No morphological changes to the summit were observed during an overflight on 25 April except for a small increase of the diameter of the SE crater.

Thermal anomalies. Thermal anomalies measured by MODIS in 2008 began with an eruption on 1 January 2008 (BGVN 33:01) and continued almost daily through 13 February (table 3). Following a brief period of no measured anomalies, a new group occurred 30 March through 4 April, after which none were recorded through 1 June 2008. Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) images and reports by ground observers from Projecto Observación Visual Volcán Llaima (POVI) indicated incandescence at the volcano during periods when no anomalies were measured by the MODIS satellites (19-21 March and 24 April 2008), perhaps due to cloud cover. All periods of reported incandescence by ground observers during January 2008 were substantiated by MODIS measured thermal anomalies.

Table 3. MODIS thermal anomalies over Llaima from February through 1 June 2008; data processed by MODVOLC analysis. Daily anomalies were measured from 1-13 February 2008, followed by no anomalies through 29 March. After a period of anomalies from 30 March through 4 April 2008, none were measured through 1 June 2008. Some absences may be due to weather. Courtesy of HIGP Thermal Alerts System.

Reference. Naranjo, J.A., Peña, P., and Moreno, H., 2008, Summary of the eruption at Llaima through February 2008: National Service of Geology and Mining (Servico Nacional de Geologia y Mineria - SERNAGEOMIN).

Geologic Background. Llaima, one of Chile's largest and most active volcanoes, contains two main historically active craters, one at the summit and the other, Pichillaima, to the SE. The massive, dominantly basaltic-to-andesitic, stratovolcano has a volume of 400 km3. A Holocene edifice built primarily of accumulated lava flows was constructed over an 8-km-wide caldera that formed about 13,200 years ago, following the eruption of the 24 km3 Curacautín Ignimbrite. More than 40 scoria cones dot the volcano's flanks. Following the end of an explosive stage about 7200 years ago, construction of the present edifice began, characterized by Strombolian, Hawaiian, and infrequent subplinian eruptions. Frequent moderate explosive eruptions with occasional lava flows have been recorded since the 17th century.

Information Contacts: OVDAS-SERNAGEOMIN (Observatorio Volcanológico de los Andes del Sur-Servico Nacional de Geologia y Mineria) (Southern Andes Volcanological Observatory-National Geology and Mining Service), Avda Sta María 0104, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.sernageomin.cl/); NASA Earth Observatory (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/productos.php); POVI (Projecto Observación Visual Volcán Llaima) (Project of Visual Observation of Llaima Volcano) (URL: http://www.povi.cl/llaima/); Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency-Earth Observation Research Center (JAXA-EORC) (URL: http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/); ONEMI (Oficina Nacional de Emergencia - Ministerio del Interior) (National Bureau of Emergency - Ministry of Interior), Chile (URL: http://www.onemi.cl/).

The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) reported that on 12 July 2008 at 1143 a strong explosive eruption at Okmok began abruptly after about an hour of rapidly escalating earthquake activity. The Volcano Alert Level was raised to Warning and the Aviation Color Code was raised to Red from the previous Alert Level of Normal/Green. The last explosive eruption began on 13 February, 1997 (BGVN 22:01) from a cone on the south side of the caldera floor. Lava flowed across the caldera floor until 9 May. Ash plumes generally rose to altitudes of 1.5-4.9 km from 13 February to about 23 May, when thermal anomalies and plumes were no longer seen on satellite imagery. One ash plume rose to an altitude of 10.5 km on 11 March. In May 2001 a small seismic swarm (BGVN 26:08) was detected in the vicinity of the volcano. The earthquake locations could not be pinpointed because Okmok is not monitored by a local seismic network.

The initial phase of the 2008 eruption was very explosive, with high levels of seismicity that peaked at 2200 then began to decline. A wet gas-and-ash-rich plume was estimated to have risen to altitudes of 10.7-15.2 km or greater. Wet, sand-sized ash fell within minutes of the onset of the eruption in Fort Glenn, about 10 km WSW. Heavy ashfall occurred on the eastern portion of Umnak Island; a dusting of ash that started at 0345 also occurred for several hours about 105 km NE in Unalaska/Dutch Harbor. News media reported that residents of Umnak Island heard thundering noises the morning of 12 July and quickly realized an eruption had begun. After calling the US Coast Guard for assistance, they began to evacuate to Unalaska using a small helicopter. A fishing boat evacuated the remaining residents after heavy ashfall made further flights impossible.

On 13 July, reports from Unalaska indicated no ashfall had occurred in Unalaska/Dutch Harbor since the previous night. The National Weather Service reported that the ash plume rose to an altitude of 13.7 km (figure 1). Plumes drifted SE and E. Based on observations of satellite imagery, the ash plume altitude was 9.1 km and drifted SE. However, satellite tracking of the ash cloud by traditional techniques was hampered by the high water content due to interaction of rising magma with very shallow groundwater and surficial water inside the caldera.

Figure 1. Photograph of Okmok by flight attendant Kelly Reeves during Alaska airlines flight on 13 July 2008. Image courtesy of Alaska Airlines.

Ash erupted from a vent or vents near composite cinder cone called Cone D in the eastern portion of the 9.7-km wide caldera. Activity during the past three significant eruptions (1945, 1958, and 1997) occurred from Cone A, a cinder cone on the far western portion of the caldera floor. Each of the three previous eruptions was generally mildly to moderately explosive with most ash clouds produced rising to less than 9.1 km altitude. Each eruption also produced a lava flow that traveled about 5 km across the caldera floor.

AVO reported that during 15-16 July seismicity changed from nearly continuous to episodic volcanic tremor, and the overall seismic intensity declined. Little to no ash was detected by satellite, but meteorological clouds obscured views. Satellite imagery from 0533 on 16 July indicated elevated surface temperatures in the NE sector of the caldera. On 16 July, a light dusting of ash was reported in Unalaska/Dutch Harbor. A plume at an altitude of 9.1 km was visible on satellite imagery at 0800. On 17 July, a pilot reported that an ash plume rose to altitudes of 4.6-6.1 km and drifted E and NE. The sulfur dioxide plume had drifted at least as far as eastern Montana (figure 2). On 18 July, the eruption was episodic, with occasional ash-producing explosions occurring every 15 to 30 minutes. The plumes from these explosions were limited to about 6.1 km.

Figure 2. OMI composite image from NOAA showing the extent of the sulfur dioxide gas cloud from the eruption of Okmok imaged at about 1200 AKDT on 17 July, 2008. The large mass shows the location of the high altitude sulfur dioxide cloud from the main explosive phase on 12 July 2008. Image created by Rick Wessels (AVO); courtesy of the OMI near-real-time decision support project funded by NASA.

Geologic Background. The broad, basaltic Okmok shield volcano, which forms the NE end of Umnak Island, has a dramatically different profile than most other Aleutian volcanoes. The summit of the low, 35-km-wide volcano is cut by two overlapping 10-km-wide calderas formed during eruptions about 12,000 and 2050 years ago that produced dacitic pyroclastic flows that reached the coast. More than 60 tephra layers from Okmok have been found overlying the 12,000-year-old caldera-forming tephra layer. Numerous satellitic cones and lava domes dot the flanks of the volcano down to the coast, including 1253-m Mount Tulik on the SE flank, which is almost 200 m higher than the caldera rim. Some of the post-caldera cones show evidence of wave-cut lake terraces; the more recent cones, some of which have been active historically, were formed after the caldera lake, once 150 m deep, disappeared. Hot springs and fumaroles are found within the caldera. Historical eruptions have occurred since 1805 from cinder cones within the caldera.

Information Contacts: Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667, USA; Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA; and Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA (URL: http://www.avo.alaska.edu/); Associated Press (URL: http://www.ap.org/).

Our last report on Papandayan (BGVN 29:08) described a modest surge in seismicity that began in July 2004, which rose for a short time but began to subside in mid-August 2004. We received no subsequent reports until June 2005. This report discusses non-eruptive restlessness from early June 2005 through the middle of April 2008, including wide fumarolic temperature variations, seismicity, and occasional minor steam plumes.

Beginning in early June 2005, the number of volcanic earthquakes increased in comparison to the previous months, and fumarole temperatures increased 3-9°C above normal levels. People were not permitted to visit Mas and Baru craters. On 16 June 2005, the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) in Indonesia raised the Alert Level at Papandayan from 1 to 2 (on a scale of 1-4) due to increased activity at the volcano. The Alert Level remained at 2 at least through 13 December 2005.

No subsequent reports were received until July 2007. On 15 July there was one volcanic earthquake; the next day 2-10 volcanic earthquakes were recorded. By 31 July, fumarole temperatures had increased 10°C above normal levels in Mas crater. On 1 August up to 53 volcanic earthquakes were recorded and a diffuse white plume rose to an altitude of 2.7 km. Residents and tourists were not permitted within a 1 km radius of the active craters.

On 2 August 2007, CVGHM raised the Alert Level from 1 to 2 (on a scale of 1-4) due to increased seismic activity at the volcano. Seismic events decreased in number after 2 August; earthquake tremors were not recorded after 14 November 2007, and on 7 January 2008, CVGHM lowered the Alert Level at Papandayan from 2 to 1 due to the decrease in activity during the previous four months. Data from deformation-monitoring instruments indicated deflation. White fumarolic plumes rose to an altitude of 2.9 km.

No subsequent reports were received until April 2008. According to the CVGHM, on 15 April the seismic network recorded one tremor signal. On 16 April, measurements of summit fumaroles revealed that the temperature had increased and water chemistry had changed since 7 April. White plumes continued to rise to an altitude of 2.7 km. CVGHM again increased the Alert Level to 2 and warned people not to venture within 1 km of the active crater.

Geologic Background. Papandayan is a complex stratovolcano with four large summit craters, the youngest of which was breached to the NE by collapse during a brief eruption in 1772 and contains active fumarole fields. The broad 1.1-km-wide, flat-floored Alun-Alun crater truncates the summit of Papandayan, and Gunung Puntang to the north gives a twin-peaked appearance. Several episodes of collapse have created an irregular profile and produced debris avalanches that have impacted lowland areas. A sulfur-encrusted fumarole field occupies historically active Kawah Mas ("Golden Crater"). After its first historical eruption in 1772, in which collapse of the NE flank produced a catastrophic debris avalanche that destroyed 40 villages and killed nearly 3000 people, only small phreatic eruptions had occurred prior to an explosive eruption that began in November 2002.

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://vsi.esdm.go.id/).

In an Antara News report, Balok Suryadi, an observer at the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) Raung monitoring post at Sumber Arum village, described clouds of "smoke and ash" that occurred on 12 and 13 June. He was also quoted in the 19 June article as saying that activity was "likely" continuing but that it could not be clearly monitored from the observation post.

Another ash eruption was seen rising through the clouds on 17 June 2008 around 1500. This event was photographed by Karim Kebaili while flying from Bali to Jakarta approximately 30 minutes after take-off (figure 4). The same eruption was seen at 1430 by pilot Nigel Demery, who stated that the ash cloud initially rose to about 4.5 km altitude but had dissipated on his return flight about two hours later. The Darwin VAAC was unable to identify the plume in satellite imagery due to meteorological clouds.

Figure 4. Ash plume rising from Raung at about 1500 on 17 June 2008. Courtesy of Karim Kebaili.

Thermal anomalies were detected by the MODIS instrument aboard the Terra satellite on 23 July 2005 and 15 August 2005. No additional thermal anomalies were detected through the end of June 2008. However, ash plumes were reported by pilots on 26 July 2007 and seen in satellite imagery on 26 August 2007 (BGVN 32:09).

Geologic Background. Raung, one of Java's most active volcanoes, is a massive stratovolcano in easternmost Java that was constructed SW of the rim of Ijen caldera. The unvegetated summit is truncated by a dramatic steep-walled, 2-km-wide caldera that has been the site of frequent historical eruptions. A prehistoric collapse of Gunung Gadung on the W flank produced a large debris avalanche that traveled 79 km, reaching nearly to the Indian Ocean. Raung contains several centers constructed along a NE-SW line, with Gunung Suket and Gunung Gadung stratovolcanoes being located to the NE and W, respectively.

Information Contacts: Rebecca Patrick, Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, Northern Territory 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac); Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Nigel Demery, Indonesia; Karim Kebaili, Indonesia; Antara News (URL: http://www.antara.co.id/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).

Our previous report on Tungurahua (BGVN 32:08) discussed the volcano's activity during March-July 2007. During that period, Ecuador's Instituto Geofisico (IG) reported significant, but variable eruptive behavior, along with many lahars, ash plumes that reached 4 km above the summit, and semi-continuous ashfall.

Table 15 presents a brief summary of the weekly activity at Tungurahua between 18 July 2007 and 19 February 2008. The plumes were described variously as ash, ash-and-gas, steam-and-gas, steam, or steam-and-ash. They rose up to 13 or 14 km altitude (25-26 October 2007 and 7 February 2008, respectively) but more typically, for many weeks, to below 8 km altitude. Around December 2007 IG stated a caution. They likened Tungurahua's behavior as similar to after its explosive phase of 14 July 2006. In that case, volcanic activity kept going, and this lead to the most explosive phase on 16 August 2006. That dramatic pattern was not repeated the next month, but the pace of volcanism kept up and led to the vigorous 7 February eruption.

Table 15. Summary of weekly activity at Tungurahua between 18 July 2007 and 19 February 2008. Courtesy of IG.

Geologic Background. Tungurahua, a steep-sided andesitic-dacitic stratovolcano that towers more than 3 km above its northern base, is one of Ecuador's most active volcanoes. Three major edifices have been sequentially constructed since the mid-Pleistocene over a basement of metamorphic rocks. Tungurahua II was built within the past 14,000 years following the collapse of the initial edifice. Tungurahua II itself collapsed about 3000 years ago and produced a large debris-avalanche deposit and a horseshoe-shaped caldera open to the west, inside which the modern glacier-capped stratovolcano (Tungurahua III) was constructed. Historical eruptions have all originated from the summit crater, accompanied by strong explosions and sometimes by pyroclastic flows and lava flows that reached populated areas at the volcano's base. Prior to a long-term eruption beginning in 1999 that caused the temporary evacuation of the city of Baños at the foot of the volcano, the last major eruption had occurred from 1916 to 1918, although minor activity continued until 1925.

Information Contacts: Geophysical Institute (IG), Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Apartado 17-01-2759, Quito, Ecuador (URL: http://www.igepn.edu.ec/); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center, Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ospo.noaa.gov/Products/atmosphere/vaac/); Reuters (URL: http://www.reuters.com/); Associated Press (URL: http://www.ap.org/); Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), 525 23rd St. NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA (URL: http://www.paho.org/).

Our most recent report on Ubinas (BGVN 33:01) discussed ongoing eruptions with continuous emissions of volcanic ash, rock, and gases during 2006-2007. During that previously discussed interval, ash plumes sometimes reached ~ 9 km altitudes at times, posing a hazard to aviation, ashfall was heavy. The current report discusses activity from the end of the previous report (17 December 2007) through 15 July 2008. During this period, ash plumes were frequent, as indicated in table 4. No thermal alerts have been detected by the University of Hawaii's Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) MODIS satellite-based thermal alert system since 27 December 2006.

Table 4. Compilation of Volcanic Ash Advisories for aviation from Ubinas during 19 December 2007 through July 1, 2008. Courtesy of the Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and the Instituto Geológical Minero y Metalúrgico (INGEMMET).

According to the ash advisories issued from the Buenos Aires VAAC, the aviation warning color code for Ubinas during the reporting period was variously orange or red. In terms of hazard status on the ground, a news article on 30 June 2008 indicated that local civil defense officials had maintained the Alert level at Yellow. They noted that small explosions and ash-and-gas emissions had continued during the previous two months. Families at immediate risk from the village of San Pedro de Querapi in the vicinity of the volcano have been relocated but have returned to their fields to pursue their agacultural activities. The population of local communities and their livestock had suffered the effects of gas and ash emissions, and local authorities had begun to discuss the possible relocation of about 650 affected families from six towns (Escacha, Tonoaya, San Migues, San Pedro de Querapi, Huataga and Ubinas). The article noted that officials recognized that the relocation process could take several years and should be the villager's decision and not one forced on them.

Geologic Background. A small, 1.4-km-wide caldera cuts the top of Ubinas, Perú's most active volcano, giving it a truncated appearance. It is the northernmost of three young volcanoes located along a regional structural lineament about 50 km behind the main volcanic front. The growth and destruction of Ubinas I was followed by construction of Ubinas II beginning in the mid-Pleistocene. The upper slopes of the andesitic-to-rhyolitic Ubinas II stratovolcano are composed primarily of andesitic and trachyandesitic lava flows and steepen to nearly 45 degrees. The steep-walled, 150-m-deep summit caldera contains an ash cone with a 500-m-wide funnel-shaped vent that is 200 m deep. Debris-avalanche deposits from the collapse of the SE flank about 3,700 years ago extend 10 km from the volcano. Widespread Plinian pumice-fall deposits include one of Holocene age about 1,000 years ago. Holocene lava flows are visible on the flanks, but historical activity, documented since the 16th century, has consisted of intermittent minor-to-moderate explosive eruptions.

Information Contacts: Instituto Geológical Minero y Metalúrgico (INGEMMET), Av. Canadá 1470, San Borja, Lima 41, Perú (URL: http://www.ingemmet.gob.pe/); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/productos.php); La República Online (URL: http://www.larepublica.com.pe).

Reports about Pago early in 2006 (BGVN 31:02) noted small vapor emissions, but no noises or glow, and low levels of seismicity. Similar observations were reported by the Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO) for December 2006. A local security company reported that sometime during 27-31 October 2006 there was a single booming noise accompanied by a white-gray emissions above the summit. Volcanologists were sent to verify the activity, but no report about the event was received. A March 2007 report only noted diffuse white vapor emissions and low seismicity.

On 28 August 2007 lava fragments were observed being ejected during the daytime from one of the Upper vents (2nd Crater). People in a nearby village heard only a single booming noise in the early hours of 27 August. The residents also indicated increased white vapor emissions from 2nd Crater on the 27th that returned to normal levels the following day. Seismic activity had increased on 27-28 August, and the Real-Time Seismic Amplitude Measurement (RSAM) increased from background level (around 100 units) to a peak of about 400 units. RSAM levels began to decline on the 29th, returning to background levels on 30 August. An inspection on 1 October revealed that only the 2nd Crater of the Upper Vents was releasing diffuse white vapor, and that there were no noises or glow.

Pago remained quiet during September-November 2007. When observations were made, only diffuse white vapor was being released from the Upper Vents. A handful of high-frequency earthquakes and 18 low-frequency events were recorded during September. The daily number of earthquakes ranged from 1 to 4 from 1 to 24 September, with none after through the end of the month. There was a slight increase in gas emission during 9-11 November. The vapor plume was blown N, where villagers reported nose and windpipe irritation, and watery eyes. The daily number of high-frequency earthquakes ranged from 1 to 3, while low-frequency earthquakes ranged from 1 to 9. During January 2008 Pago was still quiet with diffuse white vapor from the upper vents and very occasional low-frequency seismic events.

Geologic Background. The 5.5 x 7.5 km Witori caldera on the northern coast of central New Britain contains the young historically active cone of Pago. The Buru caldera cuts the SW flank of Witori volcano. The gently sloping outer flanks of Witori volcano consist primarily of dacitic pyroclastic-flow and airfall deposits produced during a series of five major explosive eruptions from about 5600 to 1200 years ago, many of which may have been associated with caldera formation. The post-caldera Pago cone may have formed less than 350 years ago. Pago has grown to a height above that of the Witori caldera rim, and a series of ten dacitic lava flows from it covers much of the caldera floor. The youngest of these was erupted during 2002-2003 from vents extending from the summit nearly to the NW caldera wall.

Information Contacts: Ima Itikarai and Herman Patia, Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO), P.O. Box 386, Rabaul, Papua New Guinea.

In discussing the week ending on 12 September, "Earthweek" (Newman, 1997) incorrectly claimed that a volcano named "Mount Pinukis" had erupted. Widely read in the US, the dramatic Earthweek report described terrified farmers and a black mushroom cloud that resembled a nuclear explosion. The mountain's location was given as "200 km E of Zamboanga City," a spot well into the sea. The purported eruption had received mention in a Manila Bulletin newspaper report nine days earlier, on 4 September. Their comparatively understated report said that a local police director had disclosed that residents had seen a dormant volcano showing signs of activity.

In response to these news reports Emmanuel Ramos of the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) sent a reply on 17 September. PHIVOLCS staff had initially heard that there were some 12 alleged families who fled the mountain and sought shelter in the lowlands. A PHIVOLCS investigation team later found that the reported "families" were actually individuals seeking respite from some politically motivated harassment. The story seems to have stemmed from a local gold rush and an influential politician who wanted to use volcanism as a ploy to exclude residents. PHIVOLCS concluded that no volcanic activity had occurred. They also added that this finding disappointed local politicians but was much welcomed by the residents.

PHIVOLCS spelled the mountain's name as "Pinokis" and from their report it seems that it might be an inactive volcano. There is no known Holocene volcano with a similar name (Simkin and Siebert, 1994). No similar names (Pinokis, Pinukis, Pinakis, etc.) were found listed in the National Imagery and Mapping Agency GEOnet Names Server (http://geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html), a searchable database of 3.3 million non-US geographic-feature names.

The Manila Bulletin report suggested that Pinokis resides on the Zamboanga Peninsula. The Peninsula lies on Mindanao Island's extreme W side where it bounds the Moro Gulf, an arm of the Celebes Sea. The mountainous Peninsula trends NNE-SSW and contains peaks with summit elevations near 1,300 m. Zamboanga City sits at the extreme end of the Peninsula and operates both a major seaport and an international airport.

[Later investigation found that Mt. Pinokis is located in the Lison Valley on the Zamboanga Peninsula, about 170 km NE of Zamboanga City and 30 km NW of Pagadian City. It is adjacent to the two peaks of the Susong Dalaga (Maiden's Breast) and near Mt. Sugarloaf.]

References. Newman, S., 1997, Earthweek, a diary of the planet (week ending 12 September): syndicated newspaper column (URL: http://www.earthweek.com/).

Manila Bulletin, 4 Sept. 1997, Dante's Peak (URL: http://www.mb.com.ph/).

Simkin, T., and Siebert, L., 1994, Volcanoes of the world, 2nd edition: Geoscience Press in association with the Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program, Tucson AZ, 368 p.

Information Contacts: Emmanuel G. Ramos, Deputy Director, Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Department of Science and Technology, PHIVOLCS Building, C. P. Garcia Ave., University of the Philippines, Diliman campus, Quezon City, Philippines.

Xinhua News Agency filed a news report on 27 February under the headline "Volcano erupts in Somalia" but the veracity of the story now appears doubtful. The report disclosed the volcano's location as on the W side of the Gedo region, an area along the Ethiopian border just NE of Kenya. The report had relied on the commissioner of the town of Bohol Garas (a settlement described as 40 km NE of the main Al-Itihad headquarters of Luq town) and some or all of the information was relayed by journalists through VHF radio. The report claimed the disaster "wounded six herdsmen" and "claimed the lives of 290 goats grazing near the mountain when the incident took place." Further descriptions included such statements as "the volcano which erupted two days ago [25 February] has melted down the rocks and sand and spread . . . ."

Giday WoldeGabriel returned from three weeks of geological fieldwork in SW Ethiopia, near the Kenyan border, on 25 August. During his time there he inquired of many people, including geologists, if they had heard of a Somalian eruption in the Gedo area; no one had heard of the event. WoldeGabriel stated that he felt the news report could have described an old mine or bomb exploding. Heavy fighting took place in the Gedo region during the Ethio-Somalian war of 1977. Somalia lacks an embassy in Washington DC; when asked during late August, Ayalaw Yiman, an Ethiopian embassy staff member in Washington DC also lacked any knowledge of a Somalian eruption.

A Somalian eruption would be significant since the closest known Holocene volcanoes occur in the central Ethiopian segment of the East African rift system S of Addis Ababa, ~500 km NW of the Gedo area. These Ethiopian rift volcanoes include volcanic fields, shield volcanoes, cinder cones, and stratovolcanoes.

Information Contacts: Xinhua News Agency, 5 Sharp Street West, Wanchai, Hong Kong; Giday WoldeGabriel, EES-1/MS D462, Geology-Geochemistry Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545; Ayalaw Yiman, Ethiopian Embassy, 2134 Kalorama Rd. NW, Washington DC 20008.

Following the Ms 7.8 earthquake in Turkey on 17 August (BGVN 24:08) an Email message originating in Turkey was circulated, claiming that volcanic activity was observed coincident with the earthquake and suggesting a new (magmatic) volcano in the Sea of Marmara. For reasons outlined below, and in the absence of further evidence, editors of the Bulletin consider this a false report.

The report stated that fishermen near the village of Cinarcik, at the E end of the Sea of Marmara "saw the sea turned red with fireballs" shortly after the onset of the earthquake. They later found dead fish that appeared "fried." Their nets were "burned" while under water and contained samples of rocks alleged to look "magmatic."

No samples of the fish were preserved. A tectonic scientist in Istanbul speculated that hot water released by the earthquake from the many hot springs along the coast in that area may have killed some fish (although they would be boiled rather than fried).

The phenomenon called earthquake lights could explain the "fireballs" reportedly seen by the fishermen. Such effects have been reasonably established associated with large earthquakes, although their origin remains poorly understood. In addition to deformation-triggered piezoelectric effects, earthquake lights have sometimes been explained as due to the release of methane gas in areas of mass wasting (even under water). Omlin and others (1999), for example, found gas hydrate and methane releases associated with mud volcanoes in coastal submarine environments.

The astronomer and author Thomas Gold (Gold, 1998) has a website (Gold, 2000) where he presents a series of alleged quotes from witnesses of earthquakes. We include three such quotes here (along with Gold's dates, attributions, and other comments):

(A) Lima, 30 March 1828. "Water in the bay 'hissed as if hot iron was immersed in it,' bubbles and dead fish rose to the surface, and the anchor chain of HMS Volage was partially fused while lying in the mud on the bottom." (Attributed to Bagnold, 1829; the anchor chain is reported to be on display in the London Navy Museum.)

(B) Romania, 10 November 1940. ". . . a thick layer like a translucid gas above the surface of the soil . . . irregular gas fires . . . flames in rhythm with the movements of the soil . . . flashes like lightning from the floor to the summit of Mt Tampa . . . flames issuing from rocks, which crumbled, with flashes also issuing from non-wooded mountainsides." (Phrases used in eyewitness accounts collected by Demetrescu and Petrescu, 1941).

(C) Sungpan-Pingwu (China), 16, 22, and 23 August 1976. "From March of 1976, various large anomalies were observed over a broad region. . . . At the Wanchia commune of Chungching County, outbursts of natural gas from rock fissures ignited and were difficult to extinguish even by dumping dirt over the fissures. . . . Chu Chieh Cho, of the Provincial Seismological Bureau, related personally seeing a fireball 75 km from the epicenter on the night of 21 July while in the company of three professional seismologists."

Yalciner and others (1999) made a study of coastal areas along the Sea of Marmara after the Izmet earthquake. They found evidence for one or more tsunamis with maximum runups of 2.0-2.5 m. Preliminary modeling of the earthquake's response failed to reproduce the observed runups; the areas of maximum runup instead appeared to correspond most closely with several local mass-failure events. This observation together with the magnitude of the earthquake, and bottom soundings from marine geophysical teams, suggested mass wasting may have been fairly common on the floor of the Sea of Marmara.

Despite a wide range of poorly understood, dramatic processes associated with earthquakes (Izmet 1999 apparently included), there remains little evidence for volcanism around the time of the earthquake. The nearest Holocene volcano lies ~200 km SW of the report location. Neither Turkish geologists nor scientists from other countries in Turkey to study the 17 August earthquake reported any volcanism. The report said the fisherman found "magmatic" rocks; it is unlikely they would be familiar with this term.

The motivation and credibility of the report's originator, Erol Erkmen, are unknown. Certainly, the difficulty in translating from Turkish to English may have caused some problems in understanding. Erkmen is associated with a website devoted to reporting UFO activity in Turkey. Photographs of a "magmatic rock" sample were sent to the Bulletin, but they only showed dark rocks photographed devoid of a scale on a featureless background. The rocks shown did not appear to be vesicular or glassy. What was most significant to Bulletin editors was the report author's progressive reluctance to provide samples or encourage follow-up investigation with local scientists. Without the collaboration of trained scientists on the scene this report cannot be validated.

References. Omlin, A, Damm, E., Mienert, J., and Lukas, D., 1999, In-situ detection of methane releases adjacent to gas hydrate fields on the Norwegian margin: (Abstract) Fall AGU meeting 1999, Eos, American Geophysical Union.

Yalciner, A.C., Borrero, J., Kukano, U., Watts, P., Synolakis, C. E., and Imamura, F., 1999, Field survey of 1999 Izmit tsunami and modeling effort of new tsunami generation mechanism: (Abstract) Fall AGU meeting 1999, Eos, American Geophysical Union.

Gold, T., 1998, The deep hot biosphere: Springer Verlag, 256 p., ISBN: 0387985468.

Gold, T., 2000, Eye-witness accounts of several major earthquakes (URL: http://www.people.cornell.edu/ pages/tg21/eyewit.html).

Information Contacts: Erol Erkmen, Tuvpo Project Alp.

In December 2002 information appeared in Mongolian and Russian newspapers and on national TV that a volcano in Central Mongolia, the Har-Togoo volcano, was producing white vapors and constant acoustic noise. Because of the potential hazard posed to two nearby settlements, mainly with regard to potential blocking of rivers, the Director of the Research Center of Astronomy and Geophysics of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Dr. Bekhtur, organized a scientific expedition to the volcano on 19-20 March 2003. The scientific team also included M. Ulziibat, seismologist from the same Research Center, M. Ganzorig, the Director of the Institute of Informatics, and A. Ivanov from the Institute of the Earth's Crust, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Geological setting. The Miocene Har-Togoo shield volcano is situated on top of a vast volcanic plateau (figure 1). The 5,000-year-old Khorog (Horog) cone in the Taryatu-Chulutu volcanic field is located 135 km SW and the Quaternary Urun-Dush cone in the Khanuy Gol (Hanuy Gol) volcanic field is 95 km ENE. Pliocene and Quaternary volcanic rocks are also abundant in the vicinity of the Holocene volcanoes (Devyatkin and Smelov, 1979; Logatchev and others, 1982). Analysis of seismic activity recorded by a network of seismic stations across Mongolia shows that earthquakes of magnitude 2-3.5 are scattered around the Har-Togoo volcano at a distance of 10-15 km.

Figure 1. Photograph of the Har-Togoo volcano viewed from west, March 2003. Courtesy of Alexei Ivanov.

Observations during March 2003. The name of the volcano in the Mongolian language means "black-pot" and through questioning of the local inhabitants, it was learned that there is a local myth that a dragon lived in the volcano. The local inhabitants also mentioned that marmots, previously abundant in the area, began to migrate westwards five years ago; they are now practically absent from the area.

Acoustic noise and venting of colorless warm gas from a small hole near the summit were noticed in October 2002 by local residents. In December 2002, while snow lay on the ground, the hole was clearly visible to local visitors, and a second hole could be seen a few meters away; it is unclear whether or not white vapors were noticed on this occasion. During the inspection in March 2003 a third hole was seen. The second hole is located within a 3 x 3 m outcrop of cinder and pumice (figure 2) whereas the first and the third holes are located within massive basalts. When close to the holes, constant noise resembled a rapid river heard from afar. The second hole was covered with plastic sheeting fixed at the margins, but the plastic was blown off within 2-3 seconds. Gas from the second hole was sampled in a mechanically pumped glass sampler. Analysis by gas chromatography, performed a week later at the Institute of the Earth's Crust, showed that nitrogen and atmospheric air were the major constituents.

Figure 2. Photograph of the second hole sampled at Har-Togoo, with hammer for scale, March 2003. Courtesy of Alexei Ivanov.

The temperature of the gas at the first, second, and third holes was +1.1, +1.4, and +2.7°C, respectively, while air temperature was -4.6 to -4.7°C (measured on 19 March 2003). Repeated measurements of the temperatures on the next day gave values of +1.1, +0.8, and -6.0°C at the first, second, and third holes, respectively. Air temperature was -9.4°C. To avoid bias due to direct heating from sunlight the measurements were performed under shadow. All measurements were done with Chechtemp2 digital thermometer with precision of ± 0.1°C and accuracy ± 0.3°C.

Inside the mouth of the first hole was 4-10-cm-thick ice with suspended gas bubbles (figure 5). The ice and snow were sampled in plastic bottles, melted, and tested for pH and Eh with digital meters. The pH-meter was calibrated by Horiba Ltd (Kyoto, Japan) standard solutions 4 and 7. Water from melted ice appeared to be slightly acidic (pH 6.52) in comparison to water of melted snow (pH 7.04). Both pH values were within neutral solution values. No prominent difference in Eh (108 and 117 for ice and snow, respectively) was revealed.

Two digital short-period three-component stations were installed on top of Har-Togoo, one 50 m from the degassing holes and one in a remote area on basement rocks, for monitoring during 19-20 March 2003. Every hour 1-3 microseismic events with magnitude <2 were recorded. All seismic events were virtually identical and resembled A-type volcano-tectonic earthquakes (figure 6). Arrival difference between S and P waves were around 0.06-0.3 seconds for the Har-Togoo station and 0.1-1.5 seconds for the remote station. Assuming that the Har-Togoo station was located in the epicentral zone, the events were located at ~1-3 km depth. Seismic episodes similar to volcanic tremors were also recorded (figure 3).

Figure 3. Examples of an A-type volcano-tectonic earthquake and volcanic tremor episodes recorded at the Har-Togoo station on 19 March 2003. Courtesy of Alexei Ivanov.

Conclusions. The abnormal thermal and seismic activities could be the result of either hydrothermal or volcanic processes. This activity could have started in the fall of 2002 when they were directly observed for the first time, or possibly up to five years earlier when marmots started migrating from the area. Further studies are planned to investigate the cause of the fumarolic and seismic activities.

At the end of a second visit in early July, gas venting had stopped, but seismicity was continuing. In August there will be a workshop on Russian-Mongolian cooperation between Institutions of the Russian and Mongolian Academies of Sciences (held in Ulan-Bator, Mongolia), where the work being done on this volcano will be presented.

References. Devyatkin, E.V. and Smelov, S.B., 1979, Position of basalts in sequence of Cenozoic sediments of Mongolia: Izvestiya USSR Academy of Sciences, geological series, no. 1, p. 16-29. (In Russian).

Logatchev, N.A., Devyatkin, E.V., Malaeva, E.M., and others, 1982, Cenozoic deposits of Taryat basin and Chulutu river valley (Central Hangai): Izvestiya USSR Academy of Sciences, geological series, no. 8, p. 76-86. (In Russian).

Geologic Background. The Miocene Har-Togoo shield volcano, also known as Togoo Tologoy, is situated on top of a vast volcanic plateau. The 5,000-year-old Khorog (Horog) cone in the Taryatu-Chulutu volcanic field is located 135 km SW and the Quaternary Urun-Dush cone in the Khanuy Gol (Hanuy Gol) volcanic field is 95 km ENE. Analysis of seismic activity recorded by a network of seismic stations across Mongolia shows that earthquakes of magnitude 2-3.5 are scattered around the Har-Togoo volcano at a distance of 10-15 km.

Information Contacts: Alexei V. Ivanov, Institute of the Earth Crust SB, Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia; Bekhtur andM. Ulziibat, Research Center of Astronomy and Geophysics, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulan-Bator, Mongolia; M. Ganzorig, Institute of Informatics MAS, Ulan-Bator, Mongolia.

An eruption at Mount Elgon was mistakenly inferred when fumes escaped from this otherwise quiet volcano. The fumes were eventually traced to dung burning in a lava-tube cave. The cave is home to, or visited by, wildlife ranging from bats to elephants. Mt. Elgon (Ol Doinyo Ilgoon) is a stratovolcano on the SW margin of a 13 x 16 km caldera that straddles the Uganda-Kenya border 140 km NE of the N shore of Lake Victoria. No eruptions are known in the historical record or in the Holocene.

On 7 September 2004 the web site of the Kenyan newspaper The Daily Nation reported that villagers sighted and smelled noxious fumes from a cave on the flank of Mt. Elgon during August 2005. The villagers' concerns were taken quite seriously by both nations, to the extent that evacuation of nearby villages was considered.

The Daily Nation article added that shortly after the villagers' reports, Moses Masibo, Kenya's Western Province geology officer visited the cave, confirmed the villagers observations, and added that the temperature in the cave was 170°C. He recommended that nearby villagers move to safer locations. Masibo and Silas Simiyu of KenGens geothermal department collected ashes from the cave for testing.

Gerald Ernst reported on 19 September 2004 that he spoke with two local geologists involved with the Elgon crisis from the Geology Department of the University of Nairobi (Jiromo campus): Professor Nyambok and Zacharia Kuria (the former is a senior scientist who was unable to go in the field; the latter is a junior scientist who visited the site). According to Ernst their interpretation is that somebody set fire to bat guano in one of the caves. The fire was intense and probably explains the vigorous fuming, high temperatures, and suffocated animals. The event was also accompanied by emissions of gases with an ammonia odor. Ernst noted that this was not surprising considering the high nitrogen content of guano—ammonia is highly toxic and can also explain the animal deaths. The intense fumes initially caused substantial panic in the area.

It was Ernst's understanding that the authorities ordered evacuations while awaiting a report from local scientists, but that people returned before the report reached the authorities. The fire presumably prompted the response of local authorities who then urged the University geologists to analyze the situation. By the time geologists arrived, the fuming had ceased, or nearly so. The residue left by the fire and other observations led them to conclude that nothing remotely related to a volcanic eruption had occurred.

However, the incident emphasized the problem due to lack of a seismic station to monitor tectonic activity related to a local triple junction associated with the rift valley or volcanic seismicity. In response, one seismic station was moved from S Kenya to the area of Mt. Elgon so that local seismicity can be monitored in the future.

Information Contacts: Gerald Ernst, Univ. of Ghent, Krijgslaan 281/S8, B-9000, Belgium; Chris Newhall, USGS, Univ. of Washington, Dept. of Earth & Space Sciences, Box 351310, Seattle, WA 98195-1310, USA; The Daily Nation (URL: http://www.nationmedia.com/dailynation/); Uganda Tourist Board (URL: http://www.visituganda.com/).