Manam is a 10-km-wide island that consists of two active summit craters: the Main summit crater and the South summit crater and is located 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea. Frequent mild-to-moderate eruptions have been recorded since 1616. The current eruption period began during June 2014 and has more recently been characterized by intermittent ash plumes and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report updates activity that occurred from November 2022 through May 2023 based on information from the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and various satellite data.

Ash plumes were reported during November and December 2022 by the Darwin VAAC. On 7 November an ash plume rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted NE based on satellite images and weather models. On 14 November an ash plume rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted W based on RVO webcam images. On 20 November ash plumes rose to 1.8 km altitude and drifted NW. On 26 December an ash plume rose to 3 km altitude and drifted S and SSE.

Intermittent sulfur dioxide plumes were detected using the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite, some of which exceeded at least two Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions (figure 93). Occasional low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were recorded by the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) system; less than five anomalies were recorded each month during November 2022 through May 2023 (figure 94). Two thermal hotspots were detected by the MODVOLC thermal alerts system on 10 December 2022. On clear weather days, thermal activity was also captured in infrared satellite imagery in both the Main and South summit craters, accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions (figure 95).

Figure 93. Distinct sulfur dioxide plumes were captured, rising from Manam based on data from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite on 16 November 2022 (top left), 6 December 2022 (top right), 14 January 2023 (bottom left), and 23 March 2023 (bottom right). Plumes generally drifted in different directions. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Figure 94. Occasional low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were detected at Manam during November 2022 through May 2023, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). Only three anomalies were detected during late November, one in early December, two during January 2023, one in late March, four during April, and one during late May. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 95. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images show a consistent thermal anomaly (bright yellow-orange) in both the Main (the northern crater) and South summit craters on 10 November 2022 (top left), 15 December 2022 (top right), 3 February 2023 (bottom left), and 24 April 2023 (bottom right). Gas-and-steam emissions occasionally accompanied the thermal activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The 10-km-wide island of Manam, lying 13 km off the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea, is one of the country's most active volcanoes. Four large radial valleys extend from the unvegetated summit of the conical basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano to its lower flanks. These valleys channel lava flows and pyroclastic avalanches that have sometimes reached the coast. Five small satellitic centers are located near the island's shoreline on the northern, southern, and western sides. Two summit craters are present; both are active, although most observed eruptions have originated from the southern crater, concentrating eruptive products during much of the past century into the SE valley. Frequent eruptions, typically of mild-to-moderate scale, have been recorded since 1616. Occasional larger eruptions have produced pyroclastic flows and lava flows that reached flat-lying coastal areas and entered the sea, sometimes impacting populated areas.

Information Contacts: Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO), Geohazards Management Division, Department of Mineral Policy and Geohazards Management (DMPGM), PO Box 3386, Kokopo, East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea; Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Krakatau is located in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, Indonesia. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan cones and left only a remnant of Rakata. The post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former Danan and Perbuwatan cones; it has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927. The current eruption period began in May 2021 and has recently consisted of explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers activity during November 2022 through April 2023 based on information provided by the Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, referred to as Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and several sources of satellite data.

Activity was relatively low during November and December 2022. Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-100 m above the summit and drifted in different directions. Gray ash plumes rose 200 m above the summit and drifted NE at 1047 and at 2343 on 11 November. On 14 November at 0933 ash plumes rose 300 m above the summit and drifted E. An ash plume was reported at 0935 on 15 December that rose 100 m above the summit and drifted NE. An eruptive event at 1031 later that day generated an ash plume that rose 700 m above the summit and drifted NE. A gray ash plume at 1910 rose 100 m above the summit and drifted E. Incandescent material was ejected above the vent based on an image taken at 1936.

During January 2023 daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions. Gray-to-brown ash plumes were reported at 1638 on 3 January, at 1410 and 1509 on 4 January, and at 0013 on 5 January that rose 100-750 m above the summit and drifted NE and E; the gray-to-black ash plume at 1509 on 4 January rose as high as 3 km above the summit and drifted E. Gray ash plumes were recorded at 1754, 2241, and 2325 on 11 January and at 0046 on 12 January and rose 200-300 m above the summit and drifted NE. Toward the end of January, PVMBG reported that activity had intensified; Strombolian activity was visible in webcam images taken at 0041, 0043, and 0450 on 23 January. Multiple gray ash plumes throughout the day rose 200-500 m above the summit and drifted E and SE (figure 135). Webcam images showed progressively intensifying Strombolian activity at 1919, 1958, and 2113 on 24 January; a gray ash plume at 1957 rose 300 m above the summit and drifted E (figure 135). Eruptive events at 0231 and 2256 on 25 January and at 0003 on 26 January ejected incandescent material from the vent, based on webcam images. Gray ash plumes observed during 26-27 January rose 300-500 m above the summit and drifted NE, E, and SE.

Figure 135. Webcam images of a strong, gray ash plume (left) and Strombolian activity (right) captured at Krakatau at 0802 on 23 January 2023 (left) and at 2116 on 24 January 2023 (right). Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Low levels of activity were reported during February and March. Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in different directions. The Darwin VAAC reported that continuous ash emissions rose to 1.5-1.8 km altitude and drifted W and NW during 1240-1300 on 10 March, based on satellite images, weather models, and PVMBG webcams. White-and-gray ash plumes rose 500 m and 300 m above the summit and drifted SW at 1446 and 1846 on 18 March, respectively. An eruptive event was recorded at 2143, though it was not visible due to darkness. Multiple ash plumes were reported during 27-29 March that rose as high as 2.5 km above the summit and drifted NE, W, and SW (figure 136). Webcam images captured incandescent ejecta above the vent at 0415 and around the summit area at 2003 on 28 March and at 0047 above the vent on 29 March.

Figure 136. Webcam image of a strong ash plume rising above Krakatau at 1522 on 28 March 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Daily white gas-and-steam plumes rose 25-300 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions during April and May. White-and-gray and black plumes rose 50-300 m above the summit on 2 and 9 April. On 11 May at 1241 a gray ash plume rose 1-3 km above the summit and drifted SW. On 12 May at 0920 a gray ash plume rose 2.5 km above the summit and drifted SW and at 2320 an ash plume rose 1.5 km above the summit and drifted SW. An accompanying webcam image showed incandescent ejecta. On 13 May at 0710 a gray ash plume rose 2 km above the summit and drifted SW (figure 137).

Figure 137. Webcam image of an ash plume rising 2 km above the summit of Krakatau at 0715 on 13 May 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph of MODIS thermal anomaly data showed intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 138). Some of this thermal activity was also visible in infrared satellite imagery at the crater, accompanied by gas-and-steam and ash plumes that drifted in different directions (figure 139).

Figure 138. Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were detected at Krakatau during November 2022 through April 2023, based on this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 139. A thermal anomaly (bright yellow-orange) was visible at Krakatau in infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images on clear weather days during November 2022 through May 2023. Occasional gas-and-steam and ash plumes accompanied the thermal activity, which drifted in different directions. Images were captured on 25 November 2022 (top left), 15 December 2022 (top right), 27 January 2023 (bottom left), and 12 May 2023 (bottom right). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The renowned Krakatau (frequently mis-named as Krakatoa) volcano lies in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. Collapse of an older edifice, perhaps in 416 or 535 CE, formed a 7-km-wide caldera. Remnants of that volcano are preserved in Verlaten and Lang Islands; subsequently the Rakata, Danan, and Perbuwatan cones were formed, coalescing to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan, and left only a remnant of Rakata. This eruption caused more than 36,000 fatalities, most as a result of tsunamis that swept the adjacent coastlines of Sumatra and Java. Pyroclastic surges traveled 40 km across the Sunda Strait and reached the Sumatra coast. After a quiescence of less than a half century, the post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former Danan and Perbuwatan cones. Anak Krakatau has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Stromboli, located in Italy, has exhibited nearly constant lava fountains for the past 2,000 years; recorded eruptions date back to 350 BCE. Eruptive activity occurs at the summit from multiple vents, which include a north crater area (N area) and a central-southern crater (CS area) on a terrace known as the ‘terrazza craterica’ at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a large scarp that runs from the summit down the NW side of the volcano-island. Activity typically consists of Strombolian explosions, incandescent ejecta, lava flows, and pyroclastic flows. Thermal and visual monitoring cameras are located on the nearby Pizzo Sopra La Fossa, above the terrazza craterica, and at multiple flank locations. The current eruption period has been ongoing since 1934 and recent activity has consisted of frequent Strombolian explosions and lava flows (BGVN 48:02). This report updates activity during January through April 2023 primarily characterized by Strombolian explosions and lava flows based on reports from Italy's Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) and various satellite data.

Frequent explosive activity continued throughout the reporting period, generally in the low-to-medium range, based on the number of hourly explosions in the summit crater (figure 253, table 16). Intermittent thermal activity was recorded by the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data (figure 254). According to data collected by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, a total of 9 thermal alerts were detected: one on 2 January 2023, one on 1 February, five on 24 March, and two on 26 March. The stronger pulses of thermal activity likely reflected lava flow events. Infrared satellite imagery captured relatively strong thermal hotspots at the two active summit craters on clear weather days, showing an especially strong event on 8 March (figure 255).

Figure 253. Explosive activity persisted at Stromboli during January through April 2023, with low to medium numbers of daily explosions at the summit crater. The average number of daily explosions (y-axis) during January through April (x-axis) are broken out by area and as a total, with red for the N area, blue for the CS area, and black for the combined total. The data are smoothed as daily (thin lines) and weekly (thick lines) averages. The black squares along the top represent days with no observations due to poor visibility (Visib. Scarsa). The right axis indicates the qualitative activity levels from low (basso) to highest (altissimo) with the green highlighted band indicating the most common level. Courtesy of INGV (Report 17/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 18/04/2023 - 24/04/2023).

Table 16. Summary of type, frequency, and intensity of explosive activity at Stromboli by month during January-April 2023; information from webcam observations. Courtesy of INGV weekly reports.

Figure 254. Intermittent thermal activity at Stromboli was detected during January through April 2023 and varied in strength, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). A pulse of activity was captured during late March. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 255. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images showing persistent thermal anomalies at both summit crater on 1 February 2023 (top left), 23 March 2023 (top right), 8 March 2023 (bottom left), and 27 April 2023. A particularly strong thermal anomaly was visible on 8 March. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Activity during January-February 2023. Strombolian explosions were reported in the N crater area, as well as lava effusion. Explosive activity in the N crater area ejected coarse material (bombs and lapilli). Intense spattering was observed in both the N1 and N2 craters. In the CS crater area, explosions generally ejected fine material (ash), sometimes to heights greater than 250 m. The intensity of the explosions was characterized as low-to-medium in the N crater and medium-to-high in the CS crater. After intense spattering activity from the N crater area, a lava overflow began at 2136 on 2 January that flowed part way down the Sciara del Fuoco, possibly moving down the drainage that formed in October, out of view from webcams. The flow remained active for a couple of hours before stopping and beginning to cool. A second lava flow was reported at 0224 on 4 January that similarly remained active for a few hours before stopping and cooling. Intense spattering was observed on 11 and 13 January from the N1 crater. After intense spattering activity at the N2 crater at 1052 on 17 January another lava flow started to flow into the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco (figure 256), dividing into two: one that traveled in the direction of the drainage formed in October, and the other one moving parallel to the point of emission. By the afternoon, the rate of the flow began to decrease, and at 1900 it started to cool. A lava flow was reported at 1519 on 24 January following intense spattering in the N2 area, which began to flow into the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco. By the morning of 25 January, the lava flow had begun to cool. During 27 January the frequency of eruption in the CS crater area increased to 6-7 events/hour compared to the typical 1-7 events/hour; the following two days showed a decrease in frequency to less than 1 event/hour. Starting at 1007 on 30 January a high-energy explosive sequence was produced by vents in the CS crater area. The sequence began with an initial energetic pulse that lasted 45 seconds, ejecting predominantly coarse products 300 m above the crater that fell in an ESE direction. Subsequent and less intense explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater. The total duration of this event lasted approximately two minutes. During 31 January through 6, 13, and 24 February spattering activity was particularly intense for short periods in the N2 crater.

Figure 256. Webcam images of the lava flow development at Stromboli during 17 January 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. The lava flow appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. Courtesy of INGV (Report 04/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 16/01/2023 - 22/01/2023).

An explosive sequence was reported on 16 February that was characterized by a major explosion in the CS crater area (figure 257). The sequence began at 1817 near the S2 crater that ejected material radially. A few seconds later, lava fountains were observed in the central part of the crater. Three explosions of medium intensity (material was ejected less than 150 m high) were recorded at the S2 crater. The first part of this sequence lasted approximately one minute, according to INGV, and material rose 300 m above the crater and then was deposited along the Sciara del Fuoco. The second phase began at 1818 at the S1 crater; it lasted seven seconds and material was ejected 150 m above the crater. Another event 20 seconds later lasted 12 seconds, also ejecting material 150 m above the crater. The sequence ended with at least three explosions of mostly fine material from the S1 crater. The total duration of this sequence was about two minutes.

Figure 257. Webcam images of the explosive sequence at Stromboli on 16 February 2023 taken by the SCT and SCV infrared and visible cameras. The lava appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. Courtesy of INGV (Report 08/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 13/02/2023 - 19/02/2023).

Short, intense spattering activity was noted above the N1 crater on 27 and 28 February. A lava overflow was first reported at 0657 from the N2 crater on 27 February that flowed into the October 2022 drainage. By 1900 the flow had stopped. A second lava overflow also in the N crater area occurred at 2149, which overlapped the first flow and then stopped by 0150 on 28 February. Material detached from both the lava overflows rolled down the Sciara del Fuoco, some of which was visible in webcam images.

Activity during March-April 2023. Strombolian activity continued with spattering activity and lava overflows in the N crater area during March. Explosive activity at the N crater area varied from low (less than 80 m high) to medium (less than 150 m high) and ejected coarse material, such as bombs and lapilli. Spattering was observed above the N1 crater, while explosive activity at the CS crater area varied from medium to high (greater than 150 m high) and ejected coarse material. Intense spattering activity was observed for short periods on 6 March above the N1 crater. At approximately 0610 a lava overflow was reported around the N2 crater on 8 March, which then flowed into the October 2022 drainage. By 1700 the flow started to cool. A second overflow began at 1712 on 9 March and overlapped the previous flow. It had stopped by 2100. Material from both flows was deposited along the Sciara del Fuoco, though much of the activity was not visible in webcam images. On 11 March a lava overflow was observed at 0215 that overlapped the two previous flows in the October 2022 drainage. By late afternoon on 12 March, it had stopped.

During a field excursion on 16 March, scientists noted that a vent in the central crater area was degassing. Another vent showed occasional Strombolian activity that emitted ash and lapilli. During 1200-1430 low-to-medium intense activity was reported; the N1 crater emitted ash emissions and the N2 crater emitted both ash and coarse material. Some explosions also occurred in the CS crater area that ejected coarse material. The C crater in the CS crater area occasionally showed gas jetting and low intensity explosions on 17 and 22 March; no activity was observed at the S1 crater. Intense, longer periods of spattering were reported in the N1 crater on 19, 24, and 25 March. Around 2242 on 23 March a lava overflow began from the N1 crater that, after about an hour, began moving down the October 2022 drainage and flow along the Sciara del Fuoco (figure 258). Between 0200 and 0400 on 26 March the flow rate increased, which generated avalanches of material from collapses at the advancing flow front. By early afternoon, the flow began to cool. On 25 March at 1548 an explosive sequence began from one of the vents at S2 in the CS crater area (figure 258). Fine ash mixed with coarse material was ejected 300 m above the crater rim and drifted SSE. Some modest explosions around Vent C were detected at 1549 on 25 March, which included an explosion at 1551 that ejected coarse material. The entire explosive sequence lasted approximately three minutes.

Figure 258. Webcam images of the lava overflow in the N1 crater area of Stromboli on 23 March 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. The lava appears light yellow-green in the infrared images. The start of the explosive sequence was also captured on 25 March 2023 accompanied by an eruption plume (e) captured by the SCT and SPT infrared webcams. Courtesy of INGV (Report 13/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 20/03/2023 - 26/03/2023).

During April explosions persisted in both the N and CS crater areas. Fine material was ejected less than 80 m above the N crater rim until 6 April, followed by ejection of coarser material. Fine material was also ejected less than 80 m above the CS crater rim. The C and S2 crater did not show significant eruptive activity. On 7 April an explosive sequence was detected in the CS crater area at 1203 (figure 259). The first explosion lasted approximately 18 seconds and ejected material 400 m above the crater rim, depositing pyroclastic material in the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco. At 1204 a second, less intense explosion lasted approximately four seconds and deposited pyroclastic products outside the crater area and near Pizzo Sopra La Fossa. A third explosion at 1205 was mainly composed of ash that rose about 150 m above the crater and lasted roughly 20 seconds. A fourth explosion occurred at 1205 about 28 seconds after the third explosion and ejected a mixture of coarse and fine material about 200 m above the crater; the explosion lasted roughly seven seconds. Overall, the entire explosive sequence lasted about two minutes and 20 seconds. After the explosive sequence on 7 April, explosions in both the N and CS crater areas ejected material as high as 150 m above the crater.

Figure 259. Webcam images of the explosive sequence at Stromboli during 1203-1205 (local time) on 7 April 2023 taken by the SCT infrared camera. Strong eruption plumes are visible, accompanied by deposits on the nearby flanks. Courtesy of INGV (Report 15/2023, Stromboli, Bollettino Settimanale, 03/04/2023 - 09/04/2023).

On 21 April research scientists from INGV made field observations in the summit area of Stromboli, and some lapilli samples were collected. In the N crater area near the N1 crater, a small cone was observed with at least two active vents, one of which was characterized by Strombolian explosions. The other vent produced explosions that ejected ash and chunks of cooled lava. At the N2 crater at least one vent was active and frequently emitted ash. In the CS crater area, a small cone contained 2-3 degassing vents and a smaller, possible fissure area also showed signs of degassing close to the Pizzo Sopra La Fossa. In the S part of the crater, three vents were active: a small hornito was characterized by modest and rare explosions, a vent that intermittently produced weak Strombolian explosions, and a vent at the end of the terrace that produced frequent ash emissions. Near the S1 crater there was a hornito that generally emitted weak gas-and-steam emissions, sometimes associated with “gas rings”. On 22 April another field inspection was carried out that reported two large sliding surfaces on the Sciara del Fuoco that showed where blocks frequently descended toward the sea. A thermal anomaly was detected at 0150 on 29 April.

Geologic Background. Spectacular incandescent nighttime explosions at Stromboli have long attracted visitors to the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean" in the NE Aeolian Islands. This volcano has lent its name to the frequent mild explosive activity that has characterized its eruptions throughout much of historical time. The small island is the emergent summit of a volcano that grew in two main eruptive cycles, the last of which formed the western portion of the island. The Neostromboli eruptive period took place between about 13,000 and 5,000 years ago. The active summit vents are located at the head of the Sciara del Fuoco, a prominent scarp that formed about 5,000 years ago due to a series of slope failures which extends to below sea level. The modern volcano has been constructed within this scarp, which funnels pyroclastic ejecta and lava flows to the NW. Essentially continuous mild Strombolian explosions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded for more than a millennium.

Information Contacts: Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Sezione di Catania, Piazza Roma 2, 95123 Catania, Italy, (URL: http://www.ct.ingv.it/en/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Nishinoshima is a small island located about 1,000 km S of Tokyo in the Ogasawara Arc in Japan. The island is the summit of a massive submarine volcano that has prominent peaks to the S, W, and NE. Eruptions date back to 1973; the most recent eruption period began in October 2022 and was characterized by ash plumes and fumarolic activity (BGVN 47:12). This report describes ash plumes and fumarolic activity during November 2022 through April 2023 based on monthly reports from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) monthly reports and satellite data.

The most recent eruptive activity prior to the reporting internal occurred on 12 October 2022, when an ash plume rose 3.5 km above the crater rim. An aerial observation conducted by the Japan Coast Guard (JCG) on 25 November reported that white fumaroles rose approximately 200 m above the central crater of a pyroclastic cone (figure 119), and multiple plumes were observed on the ESE flank of the cone. Discolored water ranging from reddish-brown to brown and yellowish-green were visible around the perimeter of the island (figure 119). No significant activity was reported in December.

Figure 119. Aerial photo of gas-and-steam plumes rising 200 m above Nishinoshima on 25 November 2022. Reddish brown to brown and yellowish-green discolored water was visible around the perimeter of the island. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, November 2022).

During an overflight conducted by JCG on 25 January 2023 intermittent activity and small, blackish-gray plumes rose 900 m above the central part of the crater were observed (figure 120). The fumarolic zone of the E flank and base of the cone had expanded and emissions had intensified. Dark brown discolored water was visible around the perimeter of the island.

Figure 120. Aerial photo of a black-gray ash plume rising approximately 900 m above the crater rim of Nishinoshima on 25 January 2023. White fumaroles were visible on the E slope of the pyroclastic cone. Dense brown to brown discolored water was observed surrounding the island. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, January, 2023).

No significant activity was reported during February through March. Ash plumes at 1050 and 1420 on 11 April rose 1.9 km above the crater rim and drifted NW and N. These were the first ash plumes observed since 12 October 2022. On 14 April JCG carried out an overflight and reported that no further eruptive activity was visible, although white gas-and-steam plumes were visible from the central crater and rose 900 m high (figure 121). Brownish and yellow-green discolored water surrounded the island.

Figure 121. Aerial photo of white gas-and-steam plumes rising 900 m above Nishinoshima on 14 April 2023. Brown and yellow-green discolored water is visible around the perimeter of the island. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of JCG via JMA (monthly reports of activity at Nishinoshima, April, 2023).

Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were recorded in the MIROVA graph (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 123). A cluster of six to eight anomalies were detected during November while a smaller number were detected during the following months: two to three during December, one during mid-January 2023, one during February, five during March, and two during April. Thermal activity was also reflected in infrared satellite data at the summit crater, accompanied by occasional gas-and-steam plumes (figure 124).

Figure 123. Intermittent low-to-moderate thermal anomalies were detected at Nishinoshima during November 2022 through April 2023, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). A cluster of anomalies occurred throughout November, while fewer anomalies were detected during the following months. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 124. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite images show a small thermal anomaly at the summit crater of Nishinoshima on 9 January 2023 (left) and 8 February 2023 (right). Gas-and-steam plumes accompanied this activity and extended S and SE, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The small island of Nishinoshima was enlarged when several new islands coalesced during an eruption in 1973-74. Multiple eruptions that began in 2013 completely covered the previous exposed surface and continued to enlarge the island. The island is the summit of a massive submarine volcano that has prominent peaks to the S, W, and NE. The summit of the southern cone rises to within 214 m of the ocean surface 9 km SSE.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 1-3-4 Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Karangetang (also known as Api Siau), at the northern end of the island of Siau, Indonesia, contains five summit craters along a N-S line. More than 40 eruptions have been recorded since 1675; recent eruptions have included frequent explosive activity, sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters and collapses of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows. The two active summit craters are Kawah Dua (the N crater) and Kawah Utama (the S crater, also referred to as the “Main Crater”). The most recent eruption began in late November 2018 and has more recently consisted of weak thermal activity and gas-and-steam emissions (BGVN 48:01). This report updates activity characterized by lava flows, incandescent avalanches, and ash plumes during January through June 2023 using reports from Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM, or the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin VAAC (Volcano Ash Advisory Center), and satellite data.

Activity during January was relatively low and mainly consisted of white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 25-150 m above Main Crater (S crater) and drifted in different directions. Incandescence was visible from the lava dome in Kawah Dua (the N crater). Weather conditions often prevented clear views of the summit. On 18 January the number of seismic signals that indicated avalanches of material began to increase. In addition, there were a total of 71 earthquakes detected during the month.

Activity continued to increase during the first week of February. Material from Main Crater traveled as far as 800 m down the Batuawang (S) and Batang (W) drainages and as far as 1 km W down the Beha (W) drainage on 4 February. On 6 February 43 earthquake events were recorded, and on 7 February, 62 events were recorded. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 25-250 m above both summit craters throughout the month. PVMBG reported an eruption began during the evening of 8 February around 1700. Photos showed incandescent material at Main Crater. Incandescent material had also descended the flank in at least two unconfirmed directions as far as 2 km from Main Crater, accompanied by ash plumes (figure 60). As a result, PVMBG increased the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) to 3 (the second highest level on a 1-4 scale).

Figure 60. Photos of the eruption at Karangetang on 8 February 2023 that consisted of incandescent material descending the flanks (top left), ash plumes (top right and bottom left), and summit crater incandescence (bottom right). Courtesy of IDN Times.

Occasional nighttime webcam images showed three main incandescent lava flows of differing lengths traveling down the S, SW, and W flanks (figure 61). Incandescent rocks were visible on the upper flanks, possibly from ejected or collapsed material from the crater, and incandescence was the most intense at the summit. Based on analyses of satellite imagery and weather models, the Darwin VAAC reported that daily ash plumes during 16-20 February rose to 2.1-3 km altitude and drifted NNE, E, and SE. BNPB reported on 16 February that as many as 77 people were evacuated and relocated to the East Siau Museum. A webcam image taken at 2156 on 17 February possibly showed incandescent material descending the SE flank. Ash plumes rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted SE during 22-23 February, according to the Darwin VAAC.

Figure 61. Webcam image of summit incandescence and lava flows descending the S, SW, and W flanks of Karangetang on 13 February 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Incandescent avalanches of material and summit incandescence at Main Crater continued during March. White gas-and-steam emissions during March generally rose 25-150 m above the summit crater; on 31 March gas-and-steam emissions rose 200-400 m high. An ash plume rose to 2.4 km altitude and drifted S at 1710 on 9 March and a large thermal anomaly was visible in images taken at 0550 and 0930 on 10 March. Incandescent material was visible at the summit and on the flanks based on webcam images taken at 0007 and 2345 on 16 March, at 1828 on 17 March, at 1940 on 18 March, at 2311 on 19 March, and at 2351 on 20 March. Incandescence was most intense on 18 and 20 March and webcam images showed possible Strombolian explosions (figure 62). An ash plume rose to 2.4 km altitude and drifted SW on 18 March, accompanied by a thermal anomaly.

Figure 62. Webcam image of intense summit incandescence and incandescent avalanches descending the flanks of Karangetang on 18 March 2023. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Summit crater incandescence at Main Crater and on the flanks persisted during April. Incandescent material at the S crater and on the flanks was reported at 0016 on 1 April. The lava flows had stopped by 1 April according to PVMBG, although incandescence was still visible up to 10 m high. Seismic signals indicating effusion decreased and by 6 April they were no longer detected. Incandescence was visible from both summit craters. On 26 April the VAL was lowered to 2 (the second lowest level on a 1-4 scale). White gas-and-steam emissions rose 25-200 m above the summit crater.

During May white gas-and-steam emissions generally rose 50-250 m above the summit, though it was often cloudy, which prevented clear views; on 21 May gas-and-steam emissions rose 50-400 m high. Nighttime N summit crater incandescence rose 10-25 m above the lava dome, and less intense incandescence was noted above Main Crater, which reached about 10 m above the dome. Sounds of falling rocks at Main Crater were heard on 15 May and the seismic network recorded 32 rockfall events in the crater on 17 May. Avalanches traveled as far as 1.5 km down the SW and S flanks, accompanied by rumbling sounds on 18 May. Incandescent material descending the flanks was captured in a webcam image at 2025 on 19 May (figure 63) and on 29 May; summit crater incandescence was observed in webcam images at 2332 on 26 May and at 2304 on 29 May. On 19 May the VAL was again raised to 3.

Figure 63. Webcam image showing incandescent material descending the flanks of Karangetang on 19 May 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Occasional Main Crater incandescence was reported during June, as well as incandescent material on the flanks. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 10-200 m above the summit crater. Ash plumes rose to 2.1 km altitude and drifted SE and E during 2-4 June, according to the Darwin VAAC. Material on the flanks of Main Crater were observed at 2225 on 7 June, at 2051 on 9 June, at 0007 on 17 June, and at 0440 on 18 June. Webcam images taken on 21, 25, and 27 June showed incandescence at Main Crater and from material on the flanks.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed strong thermal activity during mid-February through March and mid-May through June, which represented incandescent avalanches and lava flows (figure 64). During April through mid-May the power of the anomalies decreased but frequent anomalies were still detected. Brief gaps in activity occurred during late March through early April and during mid-June. Infrared satellite images showed strong lava flows mainly affecting the SW and S flanks, accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions (figure 65). According to data recorded by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, there were a total of 79 thermal hotspots detected: 28 during February, 24 during March, one during April, five during May, and 21 during June.

Figure 64. Strong thermal activity was detected during mid-February 2023 through March and mid-May through June at Karangetang during January through June 2023, as recorded by this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). During April through mid-May the power of the anomalies decreased, but the frequency at which they occurred was still relatively high. A brief gap in activity was shown during mid-June. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 65. Incandescent avalanches of material and summit crater incandescence was visible in infrared satellite images (bands 12, 11, 8A) at both the N and S summit crater of Karangetang on 17 February 2023 (top left), 13 April 2023 (top right), 28 May 2023 (bottom left), and 7 June 2023 (bottom right), as shown in these infrared (bands 12, 11, 8A) satellite images. The incandescent avalanches mainly affected the SW and S flanks. Sometimes gas-and-steam plumes accompanied the thermal activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Karangetang (Api Siau) volcano lies at the northern end of the island of Siau, about 125 km NNE of the NE-most point of Sulawesi. The stratovolcano contains five summit craters along a N-S line. It is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, with more than 40 eruptions recorded since 1675 and many additional small eruptions that were not documented (Neumann van Padang, 1951). Twentieth-century eruptions have included frequent explosive activity sometimes accompanied by pyroclastic flows and lahars. Lava dome growth has occurred in the summit craters; collapse of lava flow fronts have produced pyroclastic flows.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); IDN Times, Jl. Jend. Gatot Subroto Kav. 27 3rd Floor Kuningan, Jakarta, Indonesia 12950, Status of Karangetang Volcano in Sitaro Islands Increases (URL: https://sulsel.idntimes.com/news/indonesia/savi/status-gunung-api-karangetang-di-kepulauan-sitaro-meningkat?page=all).

Ahyi seamount is a large, conical submarine volcano that rises to within 75 m of the ocean surface about 18 km SE of the island of Farallon de Pajaros in the Northern Marianas. The remote location of the seamount has made eruptions difficult to document, but seismic stations installed in the region confirmed an eruption in the vicinity in 2001. No new activity was detected until April-May 2014 when an eruption was detected by NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) divers, hydroacoustic sensors, and seismic stations (BGVN 42:04). New activity was first detected on 15 November by hydroacoustic sensors that were consistent with submarine volcanic activity. This report covers activity during November 2022 through June 2023 based on daily and weekly reports from the US Geological Survey.

Starting in mid-October, hydroacoustic sensors at Wake Island (2.2 km E) recorded signals consistent with submarine volcanic activity, according to a report from the USGS issued on 15 November 2022. A combined analysis of the hydroacoustic signals and seismic stations located at Guam and Chichijima Island, Japan, suggested that the source of this activity was at or near the Ahyi seamount. After a re-analysis of a satellite image of the area that was captured on 6 November, USGS confirmed that there was no evidence of discoloration at the ocean surface. Few hydroacoustic and seismic signals continued through November, including on 18 November, which USGS suggested signified a decline or pause in unrest. A VONA (Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation) reported that a discolored water plume was persistently visible in satellite data starting on 18 November (figure 6). Though clouds often obscured clear views of the volcano, another discolored water plume was captured in a satellite image on 26 November. The Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) and the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) was raised to Advisory (the second lowest level on a four-level scale) on 29 November.

Figure 6. A clear, true color satellite image showed a yellow-green discolored water plume extending NW from the Ahyi seamount (white arrow) on 21 November 2022. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

During December, occasional detections were recorded on the Wake Island hydrophone sensors and discolored water over the seamount remained visible. During 2-7, 10-12, and 16-31 December possible explosion signals were detected. A small area of discolored water was observed in high-resolution Sentinel-2 satellite images during 1-6 December (figure 7). High-resolution satellite images recorded discolored water plumes on 13 December that originated from the summit region; no observations indicated that activity breached the ocean surface. A possible underwater plume was visible in satellite images on 18 December, and during 19-20 December a definite but diffuse underwater plume located SSE from the main vent was reported. An underwater plume was visible in a satellite image taken on 26 December (figure 7).

Figure 7. Clear, true color satellite images showed yellow-green discolored water plumes extending NE and W from Ahyi (white arrows) on 1 (left) and 26 (right) December 2022, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Hydrophone sensors continued to detect signals consistent with possible explosions during 1-8 January 2023. USGS reported that the number of detections decreased during 4-5 January. The hydrophone sensors experienced a data outage that started at 0118 on 8 January and continued through 10 January, though according to USGS, possible explosions were recorded prior to the data outage and likely continued during the outage. A discolored water plume originating from the summit region was detected in a partly cloudy satellite image on 8 January. On 11-12 and 15-17 January possible explosion signals were recorded again. One small signal was detected during 22-23 January and several signals were recorded on 25 and 31 January. During 27-31 January a plume of discolored water was observed above the seamount in satellite imagery (figure 8).

Figure 8. True color satellite images showed intermittent yellow-green discolored water plumes of various sizes extending N on 5 January 2023 (top left), SE on 30 January 2023 (top right), W on 4 February 2023 (bottom left), and SW on 1 March 2023 (bottom right) from Ahyi (white arrows). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Low levels of activity continued during February and March, based on data from pressure sensors on Wake Island. During 1 and 4-6 February activity was reported, and a submarine plume was observed on 4 February (figure 8). Possible explosion signals were detected during 7-8, 10, 13-14, and 24 February. During 1-2 and 3-5 March a plume of discolored water was observed in satellite imagery (figure 8). Almost continuous hydroacoustic signals were detected in remote pressure sensor data on Wake Island 2,270 km E from the volcano during 7-13 March. During 12-13 March water discoloration around the seamount was observed in satellite imagery, despite cloudy weather. By 14 March discolored water extended about 35 km, but no direction was noted. USGS reported that the continuous hydroacoustic signals detected during 13-14 March stopped abruptly on 14 March and no new detections were observed. Three 30 second hydroacoustic detections were reported during 17-19 March, but no activity was visible due to cloudy weather. A data outage was reported during 21-22 March, making pressure sensor data unavailable; a discolored water plume was, however, visible in satellite data. A possible underwater explosion signal was detected by pressure sensors at Wake Island on 26, 29, and 31 March, though the cause and origin of these events were unclear.

Similar low activity continued during April, May, and June. Several signals were detected during 1-3 April in pressure sensors at Wake Island. USGS suggested that these may be related to underwater explosions or earthquakes at the volcano, but no underwater plumes were visible in clear satellite images. The pressure sensors had data outages during 12-13 April and no data were recorded; no underwater plumes were visible in satellite images, although cloudy weather obscured most clear views. Eruptive activity was reported starting at 2210 on 21 May. On 22 May a discolored water plume that extended 4 km was visible in satellite images, though no direction was recorded. During 23-24 May some signals were detected by the underwater pressure sensors. Possible hydroacoustic signals were detected during 2-3 and 6-8 June. Multiple hydroacoustic signals were detected during 9-11 and 16-17 June, although no activity was visible in satellite images. One hydroacoustic signal was detected during 23-24 June, but there was some uncertainty about its association with volcanic activity. A single possible hydroacoustic signal was detected during 30 June to 1 July.

Geologic Background. Ahyi seamount is a large conical submarine volcano that rises to within 75 m of the ocean surface ~18 km SE of the island of Farallon de Pajaros in the northern Marianas. Water discoloration has been observed there, and in 1979 the crew of a fishing boat felt shocks over the summit area, followed by upwelling of sulfur-bearing water. On 24-25 April 2001 an explosive eruption was detected seismically by a station on Rangiroa Atoll, Tuamotu Archipelago. The event was well constrained (+/- 15 km) at a location near the southern base of Ahyi. An eruption in April-May 2014 was detected by NOAA divers, hydroacoustic sensors, and seismic stations.

Information Contacts: US Geological Survey, Volcano Hazards Program (USGS-VHP), 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, Reston, VA, USA, https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/index.html; Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Kadovar is a 2-km-wide island that is the emergent summit of a Bismarck Sea stratovolcano. It lies off the coast of New Guinea, about 25 km N of the mouth of the Sepik River. Prior to an eruption that began in 2018, a lava dome formed the high point of the volcano, filling an arcuate landslide scarp open to the S. Submarine debris-avalanche deposits occur to the S of the island. The current eruption began in January 2018 and has comprised lava effusion from vents at the summit and at the E coast; more recent activity has consisted of ash plumes, weak thermal activity, and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 48:02). This report covers activity during February through May 2023 using information from the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and satellite data.

Activity during the reporting period was relatively low and mainly consisted of white gas-and-steam plumes that were visible in natural color satellite images on clear weather days (figure 67). According to a Darwin VAAC report, at 2040 on 6 May an ash plume rose to 4.6 km altitude and drifted W; by 2300 the plume had dissipated. MODIS satellite instruments using the MODVOLC thermal algorithm detected a single thermal hotspot on the SE side of the island on 7 May. Weak thermal activity was also detected in a satellite image on the E side of the island on 14 May, accompanied by a white gas-and-steam plume that drifted SE (figure 68).

Figure 67. True color satellite images showing a white gas-and-steam plume rising from Kadovar on 28 February 2023 (left) and 30 March 2023 (right) and drifting SE and S, respectively. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 68. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) image showing weak thermal activity on the E side of the island, accompanied by a gas-and-steam plume that drifted SE from Kadovar on 14 May 2023. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The 2-km-wide island of Kadovar is the emergent summit of a Bismarck Sea stratovolcano of Holocene age. It is part of the Schouten Islands, and lies off the coast of New Guinea, about 25 km N of the mouth of the Sepik River. Prior to an eruption that began in 2018, a lava dome formed the high point of the andesitic volcano, filling an arcuate landslide scarp open to the south; submarine debris-avalanche deposits occur in that direction. Thick lava flows with columnar jointing forms low cliffs along the coast. The youthful island lacks fringing or offshore reefs. A period of heightened thermal phenomena took place in 1976. An eruption began in January 2018 that included lava effusion from vents at the summit and at the E coast.

Information Contacts: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

San Miguel in El Salvador is a broad, deep crater complex that has been frequently modified by eruptions recorded since the early 16th century and consists of the summit known locally as Chaparrastique. Flank eruptions have produced lava flows that extended to the N, NE, and SE during the 17-19th centuries. The most recent activity has consisted of minor ash eruptions from the summit crater. The current eruption period began in November 2022 and has been characterized by frequent phreatic explosions, gas-and-ash emissions, and sulfur dioxide plumes (BGVN 47:12). This report describes small gas-and-ash explosions during December 2022 through May 2023 based on special reports from the Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN).

Activity has been relatively low since the last recorded explosions on 29 November 2022. Seismicity recorded by the San Miguel Volcano Station (VSM) located on the N flank at 1.7 km elevation had decreased by 7 December. Sulfur dioxide gas measurements taken with DOAS (Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy) mobile equipment were below typical previously recorded values: 300 tons per day (t/d). During December, small explosions were recorded by the seismic network and manifested as gas-and-steam emissions.

Gas-and-ash explosions in the crater occurred during January 2023, which were recorded by the seismic network. Sulfur dioxide values remained low, between 300-400 t/d through 10 March. At 0817 on 14 January a gas-and-ash emission was visible in webcam images, rising just above the crater rim. Some mornings during February, small gas-and-steam plumes were visible in the crater. On 7 March at 2252 MARN noted an increase in degassing from the central crater; gas emissions were constantly observed through the early morning hours on 8 March. During the early morning of 8 March through the afternoon on 9 March, 12 emissions were registered, some accompanied by ash. The last gas-and-ash emission was recorded at 1210 on 9 March; very fine ashfall was reported in El Tránsito (10 km S), La Morita (6 km W), and La Piedrita (3 km W). The smell of sulfur was reported in Piedra Azul (5 km SW). On 16 March MARN reported that gas-and-steam emissions decreased.

Low degassing and very low seismicity were reported during April; no explosions have been detected between 9 March and 27 May. The sulfur dioxide emissions remained between 350-400 t/d; during 13-20 April sulfur dioxide values fluctuated between 30-300 t/d. Activity remained low through most of May; on 23 May seismicity increased. An explosion was detected at 1647 on 27 May generated a gas-and-ash plume that rose 700 m high (figure 32); a decrease in seismicity and gas emissions followed. The DOAS station installed on the W flank recorded sulfur dioxide values that reached 400 t/d on 27 May; subsequent measurements showed a decrease to 268 t/d on 28 May and 100 t/d on 29 May.

Figure 32. Webcam image of a gas-and-ash plume rising 700 m above San Miguel at 1652 on 27 May 2023. Courtesy of MARN.

Geologic Background. The symmetrical cone of San Miguel, one of the most active volcanoes in El Salvador, rises from near sea level to form one of the country's most prominent landmarks. A broad, deep, crater complex that has been frequently modified by eruptions recorded since the early 16th century caps the truncated unvegetated summit, also known locally as Chaparrastique. Flanks eruptions of the basaltic-andesitic volcano have produced many lava flows, including several during the 17th-19th centuries that extended to the N, NE, and SE. The SE-flank flows are the largest and form broad, sparsely vegetated lava fields crossed by highways and a railroad skirting the base of the volcano. Flank vent locations have migrated higher on the edifice during historical time, and the most recent activity has consisted of minor ash eruptions from the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN), Km. 5½ Carretera a Nueva San Salvador, Avenida las Mercedes, San Salvador, El Salvador (URL: http://www.snet.gob.sv/ver/vulcanologia).

Ebeko, located on the N end of Paramushir Island in the Kuril Islands, consists of three summit craters along a SSW-NNE line at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Eruptions date back to the late 18th century and have been characterized as small-to-moderate explosions from the summit crater, accompanied by intense fumarolic activity. The current eruption period began in June 2022 and has recently consisted of frequent explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:10). This report covers similar activity during October 2022 through May 2023, based on information from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

Activity during October consisted of explosive activity, ash plumes, and occasional thermal anomalies. Visual data by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk showed explosions producing ash clouds up to 2.1-3 km altitude which drifted E, N, NE, and SE during 1-8, 10, 16, and 18 October. KVERT issued several Volcano Observatory Notices for Aviation (VONA) on 7, 13-15, and 27 October 2022, stating that explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 2.3-4 km altitude and drifted 5 km E, NE, and SE. Ashfall was reported in Severo-Kurilsk (Paramushir Island, about 7 km E) on 7 and 13 October. Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly over the volcano on 15-16 October. Visual data showed ash plumes rising to 2.5-3.6 km altitude on 22, 25-29, and 31 October and moving NE due to constant explosions.

Similar activity continued during November, with explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall occurring. KVERT issued VONAs on 1-2, 4, 6-7, 9, 13, and 16 November that reported explosions and resulting ash plumes that rose to 1.7-3.6 km altitude and drifted 3-5 km SE, ESE, E, and NE. On 1 November ash plumes extended as far as 110 km SE. On 5, 8, 12, and 24-25 November explosions and ash plumes rose to 2-3.1 km altitude and drifted N and E. Ashfall was observed in Severo-Kurilsk on 7 and 16 November. A thermal anomaly was visible during 1-4, 16, and 20 November. Explosions during 26 November rose as high as 2.7 km altitude and drifted NE (figure 45).

Figure 45. Photo of an ash plume rising to 2.7 km altitude above Ebeko on 26 November 2022. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

Explosions and ash plumes continued to occur in December. During 1-2 and 4 December volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk observed explosions that sent ash to 1.9-2.5 km altitude and drifted NE and SE (figure 46). VONAs were issued on 5, 9, and 16 December reporting that explosions generated ash plumes rising to 1.9 km, 2.6 km, and 2.4 km altitude and drifted 5 km SE, E, and NE, respectively. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite imagery on 16 December. On 18 and 27-28 December explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2.5 km altitude and drifted NE and SE. On 31 December an ash plume rose to 2 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure 46. Photo of an explosive event at Ebeko at 1109 on 2 December 2022. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by S. Lakomov, IVS FEB RAS.

Explosions continued during January 2023, based on visual observations by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk. During 1-7 January explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted NE, E, W, and SE. According to VONAs issued by KVERT on 2, 4, 10, and 23 January, explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2-4 km altitude and drifted 5 km N, NE, E, and ENE; the ash plume that rose to 4 km altitude occurred on 10 January (figure 47). Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly during 3-4, 10, 13, 16, 21, 22, and 31 January. KVERT reported that an ash cloud on 4 January moved 12 km NE. On 6 and 9-11 January explosions sent ash plumes to 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and ESE. On 13 January an ash plume rose to 3 km altitude and drifted SE. During 20-24 January ash plumes from explosions rose to 3.7 km altitude and drifted SE, N, and NE. On 21 January the ash plume drifted as far as 40 km NE. During 28-29 and 31 January and 1 February ash plumes rose to 4 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure 47. Photo of a strong ash plume rising to 4 km altitude from an explosive event on 10 January 2023 (local time). Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

During February, explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall were reported. During 1, 4-5 and 7-8 February explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 4.5 km altitude and drifted E and NE; ashfall was observed on 5 and 8 February. On 6 February an explosion produced an ash plume that rose to 3 km altitude and drifted 7 km E, causing ashfall in Severo-Kurilsk. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite data on 8, 9, 13, and 21 February. Explosions on 9 and 12-13 February produced ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted E and NE; the ash cloud on 12 February extended as far as 45 km E. On 22 February explosions sent ash to 3 km altitude that drifted E. During 24 and 26-27 February ash plumes rose to 4 km altitude and drifted E. On 28 February an explosion sent ash to 2.5-3 km altitude and drifted 5 km E; ashfall was observed in Severo-Kurilsk.

Activity continued during March; visual observations showed that explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 3.6 km altitude on 3, 5-7, and 9-12 March and drifted E, NE, and NW. Thermal anomalies were visible on 10, 13, and 29-30 March in satellite imagery. On 18, 21-23, 26, and 29-30 March explosions produced ash plumes that rose to 2.8 km altitude and drifted NE and E; the ash plumes during 22-23 March extended up to 76 km E. A VONA issued on 21 March reported an explosion that produced an ash plume that rose to 2.8 km altitude and drifted 5 km E. Another VONA issued on 23 March reported that satellite data showed an ash plume rising to 3 km altitude and drifted 14 km E.

Explosions during April continued to generate ash plumes. On 1 and 4 April an ash plume rose to 2.8-3.5 km altitude and drifted SE and NE. A thermal anomaly was visible in satellite imagery during 1-6 April. Satellite data showed ash plumes and clouds rising to 2-3 km altitude and drifting up to 12 km SW and E on 3 and 6 April (figure 48). KVERT issued VONAs on 3, 5, 14, 16 April describing explosions that produced ash plumes rising to 3 km, 3.5 km, 3.5 km, and 3 km altitude and drifting 5 km S, 5 km NE and SE, 72 km NNE, and 5 km NE, respectively. According to satellite data, the resulting ash cloud from the explosion on 14 April was 25 x 7 km in size and drifted 72-104 km NNE during 14-15 April. According to visual data by volcanologists from Severo-Kurilsk explosions sent ash up to 3.5 km altitude that drifted NE and E during 15-16, 22, 25-26, and 29 April.

Figure 48. Photo of an ash cloud rising to 3.5 km altitude at Ebeko on 6 April 2023. The cloud extended up to 12 km SW and E. Photo has been color corrected. Photo by L. Kotenko, IVS FEB RAS.

The explosive eruption continued during May. Explosions during 3-4, 6-7, and 9-10 May generated ash plumes that rose to 4 km altitude and drifted SW and E. Satellite data showed a thermal anomaly on 3, 9, 13-14, and 24 May. During 12-16, 23-25, and 27-28 May ash plumes rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted in different directions due to explosions. Two VONA notices were issued on 16 and 25 May, describing explosions that generated ash plumes rising to 3 km and 3.5 km altitude, respectively and extending 5 km E. The ash cloud on 25 May drifted 75 km SE.

Thermal activity in the summit crater, occasionally accompanied by ash plumes and ash deposits on the SE and E flanks due to frequent explosions, were visible in infrared and true color satellite images (figure 49).

Figure 49. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) and true color satellite images of Ebeko showing occasional small thermal anomalies at the summit crater on 4 October 2022 (top left), 30 April 2023 (bottom left), and 27 May 2023 (bottom right). On 1 November (top right) ash deposits (light-to-dark gray) were visible on the SE flank. An ash plume drifted NE on 30 April, and ash deposits were also visible to the E on both 30 April and 27 May. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The flat-topped summit of the central cone of Ebeko volcano, one of the most active in the Kuril Islands, occupies the northern end of Paramushir Island. Three summit craters located along a SSW-NNE line form Ebeko volcano proper, at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Blocky lava flows extend west from Ebeko and SE from the neighboring Nezametnyi cone. The eastern part of the southern crater contains strong solfataras and a large boiling spring. The central crater is filled by a lake about 20 m deep whose shores are lined with steaming solfataras; the northern crater lies across a narrow, low barrier from the central crater and contains a small, cold crescentic lake. Historical activity, recorded since the late-18th century, has been restricted to small-to-moderate explosive eruptions from the summit craters. Intense fumarolic activity occurs in the summit craters, on the outer flanks of the cone, and in lateral explosion craters.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Home Reef is a submarine volcano located in the central Tonga islands between Lateiki (Metis Shoal) and Late Island. The first recorded eruption occurred in the mid-19th century, when an ephemeral island formed. An eruption in 1984 produced a 12-km-high eruption plume, a large volume of floating pumice, and an ephemeral island 500 x 1,500 m wide, with cliffs 30-50 m high that enclosed a water-filled crater. Another island-forming eruption in 2006 produced widespread pumice rafts that drifted as far as Australia; by 2008 the island had eroded below sea level. The previous eruption occurred during October 2022 and was characterized by a new island-forming eruption, lava effusion, ash plumes, discolored water, and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 47:11). This report covers discolored water plumes during November 2022 through April 2023 using satellite data.

Discolored plumes continued during the reporting period and were observed in true color satellite images on clear weather days. Satellite images show light green-yellow discolored water extending W on 8 and 28 November 2022 (figure 31), and SW on 18 November. Light green-yellow plumes extended W on 3 December, S on 13 December, SW on 18 December, and W and S on 23 December (figure 31). On 12 January 2023 discolored green-yellow plumes extended to the NE, E, SE, and N. The plume moved SE on 17 January and NW on 22 January. Faint discolored water in February was visible moving NE on 1 February. A discolored plume extended NW on 8 and 28 March and NW on 13 March (figure 31). During April, clear weather showed green-blue discolored plumes moving S on 2 April, W on 7 April, and NE and S on 12 April. A strong green-yellow discolored plume extended E and NE on 22 April for several kilometers (figure 31).

Figure 31. Visual (true color) satellite images showing continued green-yellow discolored plumes at Home Reef (black circle) that extended W on 28 November 2022 (top left), W and S on 23 December 2022 (top right), NW on 13 March 2023 (bottom left), and E and NE on 22 April 2023 (bottom right). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Home Reef, a submarine volcano midway between Metis Shoal and Late Island in the central Tonga islands, was first reported active in the mid-19th century, when an ephemeral island formed. An eruption in 1984 produced a 12-km-high eruption plume, large amounts of floating pumice, and an ephemeral 500 x 1,500 m island, with cliffs 30-50 m high that enclosed a water-filled crater. In 2006 an island-forming eruption produced widespread dacitic pumice rafts that drifted as far as Australia. Another island was built during a September-October 2022 eruption.

Information Contacts: Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Semisopochnoi is located in the western Aleutians, is 20-km-wide at sea level, and contains an 8-km-wide caldera. The three-peaked Mount Young (formerly Cerberus) was constructed within the caldera during the Holocene. Each of these peaks contains a summit crater; the lava flows on the N flank appear younger than those on the S side. The current eruption period began in early February 2021 and has more recently consisted of intermittent explosions and ash emissions (BGVN 47:12). This report updates activity during December 2022 through May 2023 using daily, weekly, and special reports from the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO). AVO monitors the volcano using local seismic and infrasound sensors, satellite data, web cameras, and remote infrasound and lightning networks.

Activity during most of December 2022 was relatively quiet; according to AVO no eruptive or explosive activity was observed since 7 November 2022. Intermittent tremor and occasional small earthquakes were observed in geophysical data. Continuous gas-and-steam emissions were observed from the N crater of Mount Young in webcam images on clear weather days (figure 25). On 24 December, there was a slight increase in earthquake activity and several small possible explosion signals were detected in infrasound data. Eruptive activity resumed on 27 December at the N crater of Mount Young; AVO issued a Volcano Activity Notice (VAN) that reported minor ash deposits on the flanks of Mount Young that extended as far as 1 km from the vent, according to webcam images taken during 27-28 December (figure 26). No ash plumes were observed in webcam or satellite imagery, but a persistent gas-and-steam plume that might have contained some ash rose to 1.5 km altitude. As a result, AVO raised the Aviation Color Code (ACC) to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale) and the Volcano Alert Level (VAL) to Watch (the second highest level on a four-level scale). Possible explosions were detected during 21 December 2022 through 1 January 2023 and seismic tremor was recorded during 30-31 December.

Figure 25. Webcam image of a gas-and-steam plume rising above Semisopochnoi from Mount Young on 21 December 2022. Courtesy of AVO.

Figure 26. Webcam image showing fresh ash deposits (black color) at the summit and on the flanks of Mount Young at Semisopochnoi, extending up to 1 km from the N crater. Image was taken on 27 December 2022. Image has been color corrected. Courtesy of AVO.

During January 2023 eruptive activity continued at the active N crater of Mount Young. Minor ash deposits were observed on the flanks, extending about 2 km SSW, based on webcam images from 1 and 3 January. A possible explosion occurred during 1-2 January based on elevated seismicity recorded on local seismometers and an infrasound signal recorded minutes later by an array at Adak. Though no ash plumes were observed in webcam or satellite imagery, a persistent gas-and-steam plume rose to 1.5 km altitude that might have carried minor traces of ash. Ash deposits were accompanied by periods of elevated seismicity and infrasound signals from the local geophysical network, which AVO reported were likely due to weak explosive activity. Low-level explosive activity was also detected during 2-3 January, with minor gas-and-steam emissions and a new ash deposit that was visible in webcam images. Low-level explosive activity was detected in geophysical data during 4-5 January, with elevated seismicity and infrasound signals observed on local stations. Volcanic tremor was detected during 7-9 January and very weak explosive activity was detected in seismic and infrasound data on 9 January. Weak seismic and infrasound signals were recorded on 17 January, which indicated minor explosive activity, but no ash emissions were observed in clear webcam images; a gas-and-steam plume continued to rise to 1.5 km altitude. During 29-30 January, ash deposits near the summit were observed on fresh snow, according to webcam images.

The active N cone at Mount Young continued to produce a gas-and-steam plume during February, but no ash emissions or explosive events were detected. Seismicity remained elevated with faint tremor during early February. Gas-and-steam emissions from the N crater were observed in clear webcam images on 11-13 and 16 February; no explosive activity was detected in seismic, infrasound, or satellite data. Seismicity has also decreased, with no significant seismic tremor observed since 25 January. Therefore, the ACC was lowered to Yellow (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) and the VAL was lowered to Advisory (the second lowest level on a four-color scale) on 22 February.

Gas-and-steam emissions persisted during March from the N cone of Mount Young, based on clear webcam images. A few brief episodes of weak tremor were detected in seismic data, although seismicity decreased over the month. A gas-and-steam plume detected in satellite data extended 150 km on 18 March. Low-level ash emissions from the N cone at Mount Young were observed in several webcam images during 18-19 March, in addition to small explosions and volcanic tremor. The ACC was raised to Orange and the VAL increased to Watch on 19 March. A small explosion was detected in seismic and infrasound data on 21 March.

Low-level unrest continued during April, although cloudy weather often obscured views of the summit; periods of seismic tremor and local earthquakes were recorded. During 3-4 April a gas-and-steam plume was visible traveling more than 200 km overnight; no ash was evident in the plume, according to AVO. A gas-and-steam plume was observed during 4-6 April that extended 400 km but did not seem to contain ash. Small explosions were detected in seismic and infrasound data on 5 April. Occasional clear webcam images showed continuing gas-and-steam emissions rose from Mount Young, but no ash deposits were observed on the snow. On 19 April small explosions and tremor were detected in seismic and infrasound data. A period of seismic tremor was detected during 22-25 April, with possible weak explosions on 25 April. Ash deposits were visible near the crater rim, but it was unclear if these deposits were recent or due to older deposits.

Occasional small earthquakes were recorded during May, but there were no signs of explosive activity seen in geophysical data. Gas-and-steam emissions continued from the N crater of Mount Young, based on webcam images, and seismicity remained slightly elevated. A new, light ash deposit was visible during the morning of 5 May on fresh snow on the NW flank of Mount Young. During 10 May periods of volcanic tremor were observed. The ACC was lowered to Yellow and the VAL to Advisory on 17 May due to no additional evidence of activity.

Geologic Background. Semisopochnoi, the largest subaerial volcano of the western Aleutians, is 20 km wide at sea level and contains an 8-km-wide caldera. It formed as a result of collapse of a low-angle, dominantly basaltic volcano following the eruption of a large volume of dacitic pumice. The high point of the island is Anvil Peak, a double-peaked late-Pleistocene cone that forms much of the island's northern part. The three-peaked Mount Cerberus (renamed Mount Young in 2023) was constructed within the caldera during the Holocene. Each of the peaks contains a summit crater; lava flows on the N flank appear younger than those on the south side. Other post-caldera volcanoes include the symmetrical Sugarloaf Peak SSE of the caldera and Lakeshore Cone, a small cinder cone at the edge of Fenner Lake in the NE part of the caldera. Most documented eruptions have originated from Young, although Coats (1950) considered that both Sugarloaf and Lakeshore Cone could have been recently active.

Information Contacts: Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of a) U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667 USA (URL: https://avo.alaska.edu/), b) Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA, and c) Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA (URL: http://dggs.alaska.gov/).

Ambae, also known as Aoba, is a large basaltic shield volcano in Vanuatu. A broad pyroclastic cone containing three crater lakes (Manaro Ngoru, Voui, and Manaro Lakua) is located at the summit within the youngest of at least two nested calderas. Periodic phreatic and pyroclastic explosions have been reported since the 16th century. A large eruption more than 400 years ago resulted in a volcanic cone within the summit crater that is now filled by Lake Voui; the similarly sized Lake Manaro fills the western third of the caldera. The previous eruption ended in August 2022 that was characterized by gas-and-steam and ash emissions and explosions of wet tephra (BGVN 47:10). This report covers a new eruption during February through May 2023 that consisted of a new lava flow, ash plumes, and sulfur dioxide emissions, using information from the Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD) and satellite data.

During the reporting period, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a scale of 0-5), which has been in place since December 2021. Activity during October 2022 through March 2023 remained relatively low and mostly consisted of gas-and-steam emissions in Lake Voui. VMGD reported that at 1300 on 15 November a satellite image captured a strong amount of sulfur dioxide rising above the volcano (figure 99), and that seismicity slightly increased. The southern and northern part of the island reported a strong sulfur dioxide smell and heard explosions. On 20 February 2023 a gas-and-ash plume rose 1.3 km above the summit and drifted SSW, according to a webcam image (figure 100). Gas-and-steam and possibly ash emissions continued on 23 February and volcanic earthquakes were recorded by the seismic network.

Figure 99. Satellite image of the strong sulfur dioxide plume above Ambae taken on 15 November 2022. The Dobson Units (DU) exceeded 12. Courtesy of VMGD.

Figure 100. Webcam image of a gas-and-ash plume rising above Ambae at 1745 on 20 February 2023. The plume drifted SSW. Courtesy of VMGD.

During April, volcanic earthquakes and gas-and-steam and ash emissions were reported from the cone in Lake Voui. VMGD reported that activity increased during 5-7 April; high gas-and-steam and ash plumes were visible, accompanied by nighttime incandescence. According to a Wellington VAAC report, a low-level ash plume rose as high as 2.5 km above the summit and drifted W and SW on 5 April, based on satellite imagery. Reports in Saratamata stated that a dark ash plume drifted to the WSW, but no loud explosion was heard. Webcam images from 2100 showed incandescence above the crater and reflected in the clouds. According to an aerial survey, field observations, and satellite data, water was no longer present in the lake. A lava flow was reported effusing from the vent and traveling N into the dry Lake Voui, which lasted three days. The next morning at 0745 on 6 April a gas-and-steam and ash plume rose 5.4 km above the summit and drifted ESE, based on information from VMGD (figure 101). The Wellington VAAC also reported that light ashfall was observed on the island. Intermittent gas-and-steam and ash emissions were visible on 7 April, some of which rose to an estimated 3 km above the summit and drifted E. Webcam images during 0107-0730 on 7 April showed continuing ash emissions. A gas-and-steam and ash plume rose 695 m above the summit crater at 0730 on 19 April and drifted ESE, based on a webcam image (figure 102).

Figure 101. Webcam image showing a gas-and-ash plume rising 5.4 km above the summit of Ambae at 0745 on 6 April 2023. Courtesy of VMGD.

Figure 102. Webcam image showing a gas-and-ash plume rising 695 m above the summit of Ambae at 0730 on 19 April 2023. Courtesy of VMGD.

According to visual and infrared satellite data, water was visible in Lake Voui as late as 24 March 2023 (figure 103). The vent in the caldera showed a gas-and-steam plume drifted SE. On 3 April thermal activity was first detected, accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted W (figure 103). The lava flow moved N within the dry lake and was shown cooling by 8 April. By 23 April much of the water in the lake had returned. Occasional sulfur dioxide plumes were detected by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite that exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions (figure 104).

Figure 103. Satellite images showing both visual (true color) and infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) views on 24 March 2023 (top left), 3 April 2023 (top left), 8 April 2023 (bottom left), and 23 April 2023 (bottom right). In the image on 24 March, water filled Lake Voui around the small northern lake. A gas-and-steam plume drifted SE. Thermal activity (bright yellow-orange) was first detected in infrared data on 3 April 2023, accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted W. The lava flow slowly filled the northern part of the then-dry lake and remained hot on 8 April. By 23 April, the water in Lake Voui had returned. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 104. Images showing sulfur dioxide plumes rising from Ambae on 26 December 2022 (top left), 25 February 2023 (top right), 23 March 2023 (bottom left), and 5 April 2023 (bottom right), as detected by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite. These plumes exceeded at least 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in different directions. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Geologic Background. The island of Ambae, also known as Aoba, is a massive 2,500 km3 basaltic shield that is the most voluminous volcano of the New Hebrides archipelago. A pronounced NE-SW-trending rift zone with numerous scoria cones gives the 16 x 38 km island an elongated form. A broad pyroclastic cone containing three crater lakes (Manaro Ngoru, Voui, and Manaro Lakua) is located at the summit within the youngest of at least two nested calderas, the largest of which is 6 km in diameter. That large central edifice is also called Manaro Voui or Lombenben volcano. Post-caldera explosive eruptions formed the summit craters about 360 years ago. A tuff cone was constructed within Lake Voui (or Vui) about 60 years later. The latest known flank eruption, about 300 years ago, destroyed the population of the Nduindui area near the western coast.

Information Contacts: Geo-Hazards Division, Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD), Ministry of Climate Change Adaptation, Meteorology, Geo-Hazards, Energy, Environment and Disaster Management, Private Mail Bag 9054, Lini Highway, Port Vila, Vanuatu (URL: http://www.vmgd.gov.vu/, https://www.facebook.com/VanuatuGeohazardsObservatory/); Wellington Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Meteorological Service of New Zealand Ltd (MetService), PO Box 722, Wellington, New Zealand (URL: http://www.metservice.com/vaac/, http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/OTH/NZ/messages.html); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Our last report focused on the VEI 2 eruption of August 2010 as well as results from regular monitoring through May 2011 by the Instituto Colombiano de Geología y Minería (INGEOMINAS) based in Pasto, the provincial capital located ~10 km E of Galeras. Here we discuss the continuing efforts to monitor Galeras from June 2011 through April 2012. We highlight regular measurements from telemetered tiltmeter data, SO₂ flux values, and earthquake cataloging and analysis. Additional monitoring activities, including radon gas assessments and thermal measurements, were conducted by INGEOMINAS and reported in weekly and monthly reports online. We briefly mention ash explosions that began on 13 May 2012.

April 2011-April 2012 Seismicity. During this reporting period, INGEOMINAS characterized five types of earthquake events: volcano-tectonic (VT), long-period (LP), tremor (TRE), hybrid (HYB), and tornillo (TOR). This data is available in online reports on the INGEOMINAS website for various years.

Earthquakes during this time were rarely deeper than 20 km and clustered ~2 km below the summit, and at times, ranging 5-8 km (table 13). Seismicity was dominated by hybrid events, signals characterizing fracturing and fluid movement. Tremor frequently occurred from May-July 2011 and December 2011-January 2012. From January-March 2012, the duration of tremor was longer than 800 minutes/month (table 13). LP events occurred most frequently in April 2011 and February 2012; VT events primarily appeared in March and April 2012. Tornillo events had been rare in 2011 but were the cause for alarm in November 2011 when INGEOMINAS detected 18 events. The seismic pattern of "tornillo-type" earthquakes has been associated with pre-eruptive conditions - in particular, explosive activity in 1992 and 2010 was preceded by episodes of tornillos (BGVN 34:12). The Alert Level was raised in November (to Orange, on a four-color scale) but lowered again in December (to Yellow) when these signals disappeared from the records; only two events were recorded in December 2011, then again in February 2012.

Table 13. Seismicity at Galeras from April 2011 through April 2012. Earthquake counts for five types of events: volcano-tectonic (VT), long-period (LP), tremor (TRE), hybrid (HYB), and tornillos (TOR). The Alert Level was raised to Orange in November (highlighted in red). Tornillos occurred rarely during this reporting period; "-" indicates events were not reported. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.

June 2011. INGEOMINAS reported that seismic energy was relatively low this month compared to May 2011. Inflation and deformation events were recorded by two tilt stations (Cráter and Calabazo); other stations, however, were stable (see figure 116 for monitoring station locations). The most proximal tilt station, Cráter, recorded the largest changes in deformation, and especially the radial component (often an order of magnitude larger than the tangential component). During this reporting period, INGEOMINAS frequently included data from the two component tiltmeters and calculated the vectors for Cráter (see INGEOMINAS online reports).

Figure 116. Map of station locations for the INGEOMINAS Pasto monitoring network (from the April 2012 online monthly report). Instrumentation includes: seismometers (SP = short period, BB = broadband), tiltmeters, acoustic flow, ScanDOAS, electromagnetic potential, and Global Positioning System (GPS) stations, as indicated in the legend. This map does not include all monitoring sites, for example fixed stations for Radon and EDM are also part of the network with results posted online. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.

Large amounts of steam and gas rose from Galeras' crater in June; a plume was frequently observed with a height up to 400 m above the crater. The plume was primarily water vapor, and measurements of SO₂ flux showed high variability. INGEOMINAS reported values from ScanDOAS and MobileDOAS ranging from 41-1,455 tons/day; a total of 22 measurements with wind direction and velocity were taken between 1-30 June. The maximum measurement of SO₂ flux was made by ScanDOAS from the Santa Bárbara station located 7.0 km NNW from the summit. The minimum value was measured along a traverse with MobileDOAS between the towns La Buitrera and Sandoná (see figure 116 for locations, La Buitera is beyond the map).

July 2011. Seismic energy was 75% higher in July compared with calculations in June. A low-energy seismic swarm of LP events was recorded during 18-19 July. Seismic swarms have occurred periodically at Galeras, the last episode was recorded in early April 2011; this was also the last time tornillo earthquakes were detected (table 13). Deformation continued with fluctuations, however, fieldwork was necessary to reinstall the Cráter tiltmeter (located 0.8 km E of the main crater and at 4,060 m above sea level) when it was disrupted by electric storms on 11 July 2011; the tiltmeter was back online on 20 July.

During clear conditions, a steam plume was visible from Galeras which reached a maximum of 1.5 km above the crater. The maximum SO₂ flux for July was 1,080 tons/day which was obtained on 11 July at the Santa Bárbara station with ScanDOAS. A total of 15 measurements with wind direction and velocity were taken between 6 and 23 July. The minimum measurement of SO₂ flux was made on 19 July by ScanDOAS, also from the Santa Bárbara station (stations Alto Jiménez and Alto Tinajillas were also recording values).

August 2011. An hour-long seismic swarm was recorded starting at 1800 on 24 August. INGEOMINAS classified these earthquakes as primarily long-period, suggesting that hydrothermal processes were active beneath Galeras. Three of the tiltmeters (Cráter, Huairatola, and Calabozo) indicated deformation and two stations (Peladitos and Cobanegra) showed no change.

Emissions continued to be visible from the crater; a white plume was frequently observed that rose 800 m above the crater rim. SO₂ levels were significantly low in August; INGEOMINAS calculated the maximum SO₂ flux as 185 tons/day from the Santa Bárbara station on 3 August. A total of 26 measurements were recorded from 1 to 31 August. The lowest value, 25 tons/day, was recorded during a traverse along the northeastern route (between the towns of Genoy and Nariño) on 9 August with MobileDOAS.

September 2011. Seismicity continued at low levels and few earthquakes were large enough to locate (table 13). On 6 September a swarm of hybrid earthquakes was recorded; this was a small episode that occurred between 0600 and 0800. Tilt stations Cráter and Huairatola recorded fluctuations while Calabozo, Peladitos, and Cobanegra showed no significant changes.

The summit was visible for much of September; the plume rose typically less than 500 m above the crater. According to INGEOMINAS, SO₂ levels were low in September. A total of 16 measurements were recorded by ScanDOAS from one fixed station (Santa Bárbara station), flux ranged from 51-225 tons/day.

October 2011. INGEOMINAS reported that an earthquake swarm occurred during 25-30 October. Events were characterized as hybrids, suggesting fluid movement and hydrothermal processes; hypocenters were very shallow, less than 2 km beneath the crater. Tilt stations Cráter, Huairatola, and Calabozo recorded fluctuations while Peladitos and Urcunina showed no significant changes.

In October, conditions were favorable for observing the summit area of Galeras. A column of white vapor was visible during most of the month; the plume rose to a height of 800 m above the rim. SO₂ flux was relatively low; 19 values were recorded between 1-31 October. The maximum value was 340 tons/day as recorded on 1 October by the Alto Jiménez station (located 10.8 km NW of the summit). The lowest value, 32 tons/day, was recorded at the Santa Bárbara station on 10 October.

November 2011.INGEOMINAS continued registering swarms of shallow VT earthquakes. These events were primarily located at depths less than 1 km from the crater with magnitudes

Figure 117. Seismogram, energy peaks, and spectrogram of the frequency of a tornillo event recorded on 14 November 2011 at 2328 from Galeras. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.

Several overflights of the crater were conducted in November by INGEOMINAS along with the Colombian Air Force (figure 118). During these flights, staff observed conditions within the crater and noted a strong sulfur odor. Thermal anomalies were detected with a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera; on 2 and 26 November, investigators recorded maximum temperatures around 200°C.

Figure 118. An aerial view of Galeras looking S toward a police station and towers on the crater rim. Photo taken during reconnaissance by INGEOMINAS on 2 November 2011.

INGEOMINAS reported significant changes in tilt from the Cráter station (figure 119). Between 7 September and 30 November, there were variations between 3,720 and 920 µrad with increasing and decreasing trends for tangential and radial components, respectively. Trends were also recorded from stations: Peladitos, Huairatola, and Cobanegra. Stations Calabozo and Urcunina showed small fluctuations and were considered stable.

Figure 119. Galeras tiltmeter data (Radial and Tangential components are 'C.Rad' and 'C.Tang', respectively) from stations Cráter, Peladitos, Huairatola, and Cobanegra from April through November 2011. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.

INGEOMINAS reported that SO₂ flux in November ranged from 5 to 178 tons/day. The highest values were recorded by stations implementing ScanDOAS; the Alto Jiménez station recorded the maximum on 5 November. The lowest value was from a MobileDOAS traverse along the Sandoná route on 30 November.

December 2011. The Alert Level was lowered from Orange to Yellow on 6 December due to reduced seismicity; tornillo events were no longer recorded. The tilt station Cráter continued to register changes. INGEOMINAS determined that the NE sector of the volcano exhibited deflation from 7 September to 24 November (figure 119) and beginning on 24 November a change occurred and inflation began. The records suggested that the Huairatola station was detecting deflation of the NE sector from 6 August to 31 December. Data from Cobanegra, from 28 February to 31 December, was also consistent with showing changes in the NE. The Peladitos, Urcunina, and Cóndor stations showed small variations and were considered stable.

In collaboration with the Colombian Air Force, INGEOMINAS conducted an overflight of the crater on 6 December. Several thermal images were taken with a FLIR camera (figure 120). The highest temperature recorded was 200°C.

Figure 120. On 6 December 2012 INGEOMINAS retrieved thermal images of Galeras. In the FLIR image on the right, three maximum temperatures were captured: 116.8°C, 98.7°C, and 74.4°C. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.

Increased degassing was noted from two sites on the N edge of the crater, Paisita and Chavas (for a crater location map, see figure 87 in BGVN 23:01). SO₂ flux was measured by three fixed ScanDOAS stations; a total of 12 measurements were recorded during 1-22 December. Emissions were low and ranging from 21 to 310 tons/day. INGEOMINAS recorded the maximum value from Alto Tinajillas (located 13.3 km W of the crater, figure 116) on 14 December; the minimum was from Santa Bárbara on 9 December.

January 2012. On 31 January, INGEOMINAS reported that a seismic swarm dominated by short-period VT events was recorded. Deformation detected by the Cráter station suggested three unique episodes where radial tilt was increasing, stabilized, and decreased. The tangential component exhibited an inversion of this trend: decreasing, stabilization, and increasing. INGEOMINAS calculated 657 µrad of inflation within the central crater, followed by stabilization and later, deflation measured as 264 µrad.

Steam continued to rise from Paisita and Chavas craters. A white plume was typically visible low over the crater however, on 5, 11, and 21 January, the plume height varied between 500 and 800 m. INGEOMINAS reported that SO₂ flux continued at low levels, ranging from 32-259 tons/day. A total of 12 values were obtained from fixed ScanDOAS stations. The maximum value was recorded at the Santa Bárbara station on 27 January.

February 2012. Seismic swarms occurred in February consisting primarily of small, shallow events. At 2148 on 27 February the short-period seismic station Anganoy (located 0.8 km E of the crater, figure 116) recorded an event INGEOMINAS characterized as a 'pseudo-Tornillo'; this event had a dominant frequency of 4.1 Hz and a duration of 36 seconds.

Pseudo-tornillos appeared to be rare events and had occurred previously in November 2011. These have much shorter codas (tails) compared to those of the tornillo signals. The latter last up to several minutes, have small amplitudes compared to duration, and generally decay progressively so their seismic traces appear screw-like in appearance (tornillos is Spanish for screw). These features and various other subtypes and their diagnostic signal characteristics and names are discussed in Narváez and others (1997).

Deformation measured by the Cráter station recorded 774 µrad of deflation in the central crater. The Cobanegra station registered decreasing trends; the stations Peladitos, Urcunina, and Cóndor were considered stable.

A white plume from the crater was visible by webcameras and reached heights less than 800 m above the rim. SO₂ flux in February remained low and ranged from 8 to 498 tons/day. A total of 27 values were recorded from fixed ScanDOAS and MobileDOAS measurements. The maximum flux was recorded on 22 February at the Alto Jiménez station.

March 2012. In March, seismic energy decreased by 89.1% compared to February, and few earthquakes were located. However, tremor continued (table 13). The Cráter tiltmeter recorded variability in early March, and from 22 to 31 March, 1,440 µrad of inflation was recorded within the central crater. The Cobanegra station recorded decreasing trends with both components while the stations Peladitos, Urcunina, Cóndor, Calabozo, and Arlés were considered stable.

A white plume was visible during most of the month except for four days. Plume height was maintained below 1.9 km. On 2 March, the National Park reported strong sulfur odors and also received alerts from the municipal committee of Sandoná that gas was noticeable.

Based on fixed and mobile detectors, INGEOMINAS reported that SO₂ flux increased dramatically in March. A maximum of 3,390 tons/day was recorded by the Alto Jiménez station on 15 March. The lowest value recorded was 305 tons/day during a traverse along the Consaca-Sandoná route on 30 March. A total of 33 measurements were collected from 1 to 31 March.

April 2012. INGEOMINAS reported that seismic swarms occurred during 5-8 and 11-16 April consisting primarily of small, shallow VT events. The Cráter and Huairatola tilt stations registered variability suggesting inflation in the W sector of Galeras, an area known for high seismicity. The Cobanegra station recorded decreasing trends from both components between 85 and 430 µrad. The other stations were considered stable.

A white plume was frequently visible above the crater in April. Webcameras and observers recorded a maximum height of 2,000 m. On 16 April, the local committee for the prevention of disasters (CLOPAD) of the provincial capital, Pasto, received reports from inhabitants near the N flank of Galeras; gas emissions were visible and people could hear noises from the crater.

SO₂ flux continued at elevated levels in April. INGEOMINAS recorded 33 measurements during April. A maximum of 1,477 tons/day was recorded at the Alto Jiménez station on 2 April. The highest levels of SO₂ emissions were recorded within the first week of April, averaging 1,012 tons/day. The lowest value was recorded on 13 April, 10 tons/day, along the La Florida-Sandoná route with MobileDOAS.

Editor's Note: INGEOMINAS and the Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) reported that ash emissions were detected in early May 2012 (figure 121) and continued into early June.

Figure 121. An ash explosion from Galeras was captured by the "Barranco" webcamera on 27 May 2012. This high-resolution camera was located on the NW rim of the crater. Timing of photo sequence: A. 09:37:53; B. 09:39:08; C. 09:40:15; D. 09:41:40. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.

Reference. Narváez, L.M., Torres, R.A., Gómez, D.M., Cortez, G.P., Cepeda, H.V., and Stix, J., 1997. 'Tornillo'-type seismic signals at Galeras volcano, Colombia, 1992-1993, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 77: 159-171.

Geologic Background. Galeras, a stratovolcano with a large breached caldera located immediately west of the city of Pasto, is one of Colombia's most frequently active volcanoes. The dominantly andesitic complex has been active for more than 1 million years, and two major caldera collapse eruptions took place during the late Pleistocene. Long-term extensive hydrothermal alteration has contributed to large-scale edifice collapse on at least three occasions, producing debris avalanches that swept to the west and left a large open caldera inside which the modern cone has been constructed. Major explosive eruptions since the mid-Holocene have produced widespread tephra deposits and pyroclastic flows that swept all but the southern flanks. A central cone slightly lower than the caldera rim has been the site of numerous small-to-moderate eruptions since the time of the Spanish conquistadors.

Information Contacts: Instituto Colombiano de Geologia y Mineria (INGEOMINAS), Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Pasto, Pasto, Colombia (URL: https://www2.sgc.gov.co/volcanes/index.html); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS E/SP23, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: http://www.ospo.noaa.gov/Products/atmosphere/vaac/).

This report mentions a possible ash plume from Galunggung volcano in July 2008 and various other anomalies, including discolored crater lake water during parts of 2011 and 2012. Our last report on Galunggung was in 1984 (SEAN 09:02), following a deadly eruption that began in mid-1982 and ended in early 1983.

The following background information on the volcano was provided in 13 February and 28 May 2012 reports from the Indonesian Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM). According to the latest report from CVGHM, the present-day lake in the conical crater of Galunggung volcano has a diameter of 1 km and a typical depth of 11 m. In the middle of the lake sits a small, 30 m high, 250 x 165 m scoria cone which was produced during the final stage of the 1982-83 eruption. Galunggung's hazards include phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions capable of draining the lake and producing mud flows.

As further background, some of the historical eruptions were explosive, centered at the volcano's crater lake. These eruptions occurred four times, in 1822, 1894, 1918, and 1982-1983. The eruption of 1982-1983 occurred over a period of 21 months, from 5 April 1982-8 January 1984 (SEAN 07:04, 07:06, 07:07, 07:08, 07:09, 07:10, 07:11, and 07:12). In late June 1982, a British Airways jumbo jet encountered an ash cloud that stalled all four of its engines and abraded its windshield and wing surfaces. The aircraft lost 7.5 km of altitude before the engines could be restarted, but it landed safely in Jakarta (SEAN 07:06).

Incorrect report of 2002 eruption; questionable one in 2008. Based on erroneous information from a pilot report, the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) stated that an eruption occurred at Galunggung at 1748 hr on 23 August 2002. It produced a W-drifting low-level plume. No ash was visible on satellite imagery. Subsequently, Dali Ahmad of CVGHM had advised Dan Shackelford (amateur volcanist, now deceased) that the report of an eruption on 23 August 2002 was incorrect. It turned out that the likely cause of the incident was a bushfire near the volcano that led observers to believe that an eruption was occurring.

Based on a pilot report and inconclusive observations of satellite imagery, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 17 July 2008 a possible ash plume from Galunggung rose to an altitude of 5.5 km and drifted SW. However, CVGHM did not report eruptive activity and advised that the volcanic activity status was "normal" at that time.

2011-2012 observations. CVGHM reported that from September 2011 to 8 February 2012 the crater lake water at Galunggung was discolored. In addition, a sudden increase in water temperature was measured, from 27° C on 5 February to 40° C on 8 February. Based on seismic data and crater lake observations, CVGHM raised the Alert Level from 1 to 2 (on a scale of 1-4) on 12 February and recommended that people stay at least 500 m away from the lake shore.

CVGHM reported that after the Alert Level was raised, seismic activity at Galunggung decreased drastically through 27 May 2012. Moreover, on 27 April, plants around the crater area looked green and lush, small fish were swimming in the water, and insects around the crater were active. Based on seismic data, crater lake water temperature and pH data, and visual observations, CVGHM lowered the Alert Level from 2 to 1 on 28 May 2012.

MODVOLC satellite thermal alerts were absent at Galunggung during 2011-2012 (and at least since 2000). CVCHM noted in its 28 May 2012 report that throughout the first half of 2012 Galunggung volcano was often covered in mist.

Geologic Background. The forested slopes of Galunggung in western Java SE of Bandung are cut by a 2-km-wide collapse scarp open towards the ESE. The "Ten Thousand Hills of Tasikmalaya" dotting the plain below the volcano are debris-avalanche hummocks from the collapse about 4,200 years ago. An eruption in 1822 produced pyroclastic flows and lahars that killed over 4,000 people. A series of major explosive eruptions starting in April 1982 destroyed a number of villages, killed as many as 30 people, and forced over 60,000 to evacuate. Pyroclastic flows and heavy widespread ash caused significant damage. A large passenger jet that encountered the ash plume on 24 June lost power to all four engines but managed to land safely in Jakarta. The 1982 activity destroyed a 1918 dome and formed the Warirang crater, almost as wide as the valley, about 2 km down from the summit.

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) (URL: http://www.noaa.gov/VAAC/OTH/AU/messages.html).

Previous Bulletin reports on Gamkonora highlighted an eruption in 1981, minor explosions in April 1987 (SEAN 06:07), and a phreatic eruption in early July 2007 (BGVN 32:10). Reports by the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) noted tiny diffuse white plumes in 2009 and again in 2011 when the observatory recorded an average of 2 volcanic earthquakes per day. During mid-2011 through mid-2012, in addition to intervals with several shallow volcanic earthquakes per day, instruments also recorded increasing tremor and hundreds of signals of inferred emissions described as hot-air blasts. The hazard status rose accordingly and remained elevated as this report goes to press on 29 June 2012 at Alert Level 3 (on a scale of 1-4).

As this report goes to press a potentially inaccurate news report indicated an eruption starting 13 June 2012 (see subsection below). That behavior remained unconfirmed by CVGHM or the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) as discussed further in a subsection below.

Figures 2-4 provide broad regional context on Gamkonora near the northern margin of Indonesia. A previous map (figure 1 in BGVN 32:10) shows Gamkonora and other Holocene volcanoes on a map of Halmahera and adjacent islands.

Figure 2. Indonesian volcanoes with eruptions since 1900 A.D. as compiled from Simkin and Siebert (1994) by Lyn Topinka (USGS-Cascades Volcano Observatory). Halmahera island and Gamkonora volcano appear in the upper (N) part of the map (see figures 3 and 4). Courtesy of the USGS.

Figure 3. Gamkonora and the situation there associated with unrest in July 2007 (BGVN 32:10). Note the globe showing Indonesia at upper right. On the main map, most of the unshaded and unlabeled islands situated NW of Gamkonora belong to the Philippines. Courtesy of Relief Web.

Figure 4. A UNOSAT product made 12 July 2007 addressing Gamkonora's crisis around that time. The scale and details highlight the local setting; the box at upper left mentions 2004 population estimates and notes that there were 35,000 residents within 20 km of the volcano. Courtesy of UNOSAT.

CVGHM reports were scarce during 1982-2011. One report noted that seismic activity increased somewhat on 24 March 2008. The increase included an episode of continuous tremor.

On 23 March 2009, CVGHM lowered the Alert Level from 2 to 1 based on visual observations and decreased seismicity since January. Diffuse white plumes rose 50-150 m above the crater. Residents and visitors were reminded not to approach or climb into the crater.

CVGHM reported that during January-April 2011, diffuse white plumes rose 25-100 m above Gamkonora's crater rim. Seismicity increased during 29 April-3 May 2011.

On 1 May, white plumes rose 150 m above the crater rim. The next day, white plumes were observed rising 300 m above the crater rim and observers saw incandescence from the crater. Residents near the volcano's base noted a sulfur smell. On 3 May 2011 the Alert level was raised to 2.

Various types of earthquakes were noted during January to April 2011. They included shallow volcanic earthquakes (2 per day average), deep volcanic earthquakes (once per day average), local tectonic earthquakes (1-7 per day average), and far tectonic earthquakes (4 per day average).

A 13 June 2012 CVGHM report noted that during May and June 2012 the emissions were sparsely to medium white in color and rising 75 to 200 m above the crater rim. Absent were sulfurous smells, open flames, eruptive noises, and other similar anomalous symptoms.

The same CVGHM report noted that seismic signals since 3 May 2010 included emission signals (hot-air blasts, averaging 10-12 daily), harmonic tremor (averaging 10-15 events daily), shallow volcanic earthquakes (averaging 2 daily, but for the one specific case given, during the interval 31 May to 11 June 2012, only 1 occurred), and distant tectonic earthquakes (averaging 4 daily). Table 1 presents a breakdown of the interpreted seismic signals during 1 May to 12 June 2012.

Table 1. Seismic data released on 13 June 2012 for Gamkonora. The entries represent total events during specified intervals during May and early June 2012 ("--" signifies absence of data). Courtesy of CVGHM.

The authors of the 13 June report made no further comment about the air-blast signals that had become common at the volcano (table 1). They did note that since the beginning of May 2012, tremor had increased. They interpreted this and the overall seismicity as due to magma intruding upward and approaching shallow depths within the volcano. The authors noted that intrusions could lead to increased pressure within the volcano, although they viewed this pressure as yet relatively small.

As previously noted, starting on 3 May 2011, the volcano's hazard status rose to Alert Level 2. On 3 May 2012 it rose to Level 3, where it remained at least as late as 29 June 2012. The Level 3 status excluded residents, visitors, and tourists from approaching closer than 3 km from the summit. The report also prompted local governments to coordinate with the volcano's monitoring post, which is located in the village of Gamsungi (or with CVGHM's main office in Bandung).

News claims of eruption on 13 June 2012. The English language version of Antara News released a report (edited by Ella Syafputri) at 1913 on 13 June stating that Gamakonora had erupted that afternoon. The eruption, if it did occur, escaped clear mention in available CVGHM reports. The news report said that the eruption sent a plume of undisclosed type or color 3 km "into the sky" (a term that could imply a plume to 3 km altitude or could mean a plume 3 km over the ~1.6 km summit, in effect to ~4.6 km altitude). The news report said the event had the effect of "forcing hundreds of residents living on the volcano's slope to evacuate to safer areas."

Despite the headline "Mount Gamkonora erupts" and directly under that, the sentence "The volcanic ash spread to as far as Tobelo, the capital of North Halmahera district", the two quotes referred to events at two separate volcanoes. In the 5th paragraph of the article the topic shifted to Dukono, another volcano in the region, which turned out to have been the source of the ash (not Gamkonora).

The news report spawned no fewer than 10-20 English-language reports on as many websites. Some of these derivative reports continued to mistakenly attribute Dukono ashfall to Gamkonora, and in some cases they added further errors.

Reference. Simkin, T. and Siebert, L., 1994, Volcanoes of the World: a Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years. (2nd ed.) Geoscience Press, Tucson, 368 pp.

Geologic Background. The shifting of eruption centers on Gamkonora, the highest peak of Halmahera, has produced an elongated series of summit craters along a N-S trending rift. Youthful-looking lava flows originate near the cones of Gunung Alon and Popolojo, south of Gamkonora. Since its first recorded eruption in the 16th century, typical activity has been small-to-moderate explosive eruptions. Its largest recorded eruption, in 1673, was accompanied by tsunamis that inundated villages.

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Lyn Topinka, United States Geological Survey, 1300 SE Cardinal Court, Bldg. 10, Suite 100, Vancouver, WA, 98683; UNOSAT (URL: https://unitar.org/unosat/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Antara News (URL: http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/).

Iliamna was last discussed in September 1997 (BGVN 22:09). This report is largely based on seismic data extracted from Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) yearly reports for 1997 to 2011, with the exception of an increase of seismicity during early 2012 that was reported by various sources. From the start of 2012, both rockfalls and seismicity progressively increased; this prompted AVO to increase the Alert Level to Advisory in March 2012. A map showing the location of Iliamna in relation to nearby volcanoes and communities is depicted in figure 1. Figures 2 and 3 are topographic maps showing Iliamna's known debris avalanches and rockfall deposits.

Figure 1. Map of Iliamna and nearby volcanoes and communities. Iliamna is in SW Alaska near the mouth of the Cook Inlet, and W of the Kenai Peninsula. Courtesy of AVO.

Figure 2. Iliamna topographic mapping of known debris-avalanche and rockfall deposits. As indicated in the explanation (bottom), red triangles indicate debris avalanches associated with Iliamna, pale orange triangles indicate debris avalanches associated with Iliamna that have been reworked by glaciers, green triangles indicate debris avalanches not associated with Iliamna, green and red dashed lines indicate the maximum likely extent of debris avalanches with relatively long and short runouts, respectively, potential pathways of debris avalanches are indicated by red arrows, and orange shaded areas indicate the generalized extent of rockfall debris on glacier surfaces. Courtesy of Waythomas (1999).

Figure 3. View of the SE flank of Iliamna Volcano showing debris-avalanche deposits from 1997 (solid red line), the fumarole zone near the summit (yellow dashed line), and the older avalanche scar at the head of Red Glacier (red dashed line). Photo undated; courtesy of Waythomas (1999).

Most of the upper edifice exposes highly altered, unstable rock and shows scars from mass wasting. The E scar has been the source of frequent non-volcanic gravitational collapses producing mixed avalanches of ice, snow, rock, and mud that typically extend several kilometers downslope. Some are large enough to be visible from the Kenai Peninsula (Neal and others, 1995; McGimsey and Wallace, 1999).

Reports on Iliamna's seismicity since early 1997 are sparse. According to AVO, a pilot reported a fresh deposit of mud and rock on the upper NE flank on 6 July 1999. However, spring and summer avalanches are common on the glacier-dominated summit.

On 25 July 2003, an avalanche of snow, ice, and rock occurred. The event lasted four minutes and was recorded by seismometers located 75 km away on Augustine volcano. The avalanche presumably originated from the same vicinity as in previous years, a steep portion of the SE flank adjacent to an extensive permanent fumarolic zone above a debris-avalanche deposit (figure 3; Neal and others, 1995; McGimsey and Wallace, 1999; McGimsey and others, 2004).

On 15 May 2005, AVO seismologists noted a swarm of unusual seismic activity at Iliamna. The events were emergent and prolonged (the longest lasted 5-8 minutes) and were strongest at seismic station ILS, located on the S flank of South Twin (figure 4). The activity began at about 1250 UTC and tapered off at 1718 UTC. Analysis revealed that the signals most likely were caused by a surficial process, such as a snow avalanche (a common occurrence on Iliamna), but this particular event lacked the usual precursory seismicity preceding other Iliamna snow and ice avalanches ( Caplan-Auerbach and others, 2004; J. Caplan-Auerbach, written commun., 2005; Caplan-Auerbach and Huggel, 2007).

Figure 4. Iliamna volcano topographic map showing the location of the 15 May 2005 rockslide as a thick black line on the S flank of South Twin and the seismic station ILS as a red dot. Lake Clark National Park boundary shown as a thin black line. Base map provided by C. Waythomas, AVO/USGS; courtesy of McGimsey (2008).

During an overflight on 16 May 2005, Lee Fink of Lake Clark National Park observed a large, fresh rock slide (not a snow or ice avalanche) SE of Iliamna that began at ~1,980 m elevation on the SE flank of South Twin, and ran down to ~365 m elevation (figure 5a). Along the lengthy ridge extending S of Iliamna (including both South Twin, North Twin, and a large unnamed massif) are steep, exposed sections of bedrock. The 15 May rockfall occurred below the ridge (figure 5b).

Figure 5. (a) Rock avalanche on SE flank of S Twin (topographic high at upper center) beginning at ~2 km elevation and running down to ~0.37 km elevation. Photo by Page Spencer, Lake Clark National Park, 16 May 2005. (b) Iliamna from the E captured on 12 July 2006. The arrows mark the location of the 15 May 2005 rock avalanche. Photo by Christinia Neal, AVO/USGS. Courtesy of McGimsey (2008).

During Iliamna's mid-May 2005 rock slide, earthquakes at Augustine volcano, ~100 km SSW of Iliamna in the Cook Inlet, increased from 2 per day in April to 70 per day by the end of the year (McGimsey, 2008). However, no evidence exists that this increase disturbed Iliamna. Other factors such as temperature changes, ice and snow mass (and other conditions) would have contributed to the weakening of the summit material at Iliamna.

According to AVO, earthquake numbers increased significantly between 2008-2009, but returned to near-normal levels in 2010 (table 1).

Table 1. Numbers and types of earthquakes at Iliamna between 2008 and 2010. Key: VT, volcanic tremor; LF, low frequency; Mc, magnitude of completion (lowest magnitude detectable); and '--', not reported. Courtesy of AVO.

Early 2012 elevated seismicity. AVO reported that during December 2011-February 2012, earthquake activity steadily increased. During the first week of March 2012, numerous earthquakes occurred that varied in number and magnitude. According to a press account (Alaskan Dispatch), on 8 March, a moderate M 4.1 earthquake struck the region. On 9 March, AVO increased the Alert Level to Advisory and the Aviation Color Code to Yellow. AVO reported that the increased activity was a significant change, but also noted that a similarly energetic episode of seismic unrest from September 1996 to February 1997 did not lead to an eruption.

Between 9 March through at least 3 April 2012, seismicity remained above background levels. Satellite images acquired during 9-16 March showed a plume drifting 56 km downwind that was likely water vapor. An AVO report noted that long-lived fumaroles at the summit of Iliamna frequently produced visible plumes, but the current plume appeared to be more robust than usual. Scientists aboard an overflight on 17 March observed vigorous and plentiful fumaroles at the summit, consistent with elevated gas emissions. Gas measurements indicated that the volcano was emitting elevated levels of SO₂ and CO₂, consistent with a magmatic source. During the overflight, scientists did not observe obvious signs of recent rockfalls, such as large areas of newly exposed bedrock or unusual disturbance of the glacial ice. Some deformation of the ice at the headwall of the Red Glacier on the E side of the summit was observed, but it is not clear that this was related to the current volcanic unrest; glacier avalanching is common on this very steep area and was last seen in 2008. During 25-27 March, activity declined somewhat to just above background levels. When not obscured by clouds, satellite and web camera views showed nothing unusual.

References. Caplan-Auerbach, J., Prejean, S.G., and Power, J.A., 2004, Seismic recordings of ice and debris avalanches of Iliamna Volcano (Alaska): Acta Vulcanologica, v. 16, n. 1-2, p. 9-20.

Caplan-Auerbach, J., and Huggel, C., 2007, Precursory seismicity associated with frequent, large ice avalanches on Iliamna volcano, Alaska, USA: Journal of Glaciology, v. 53, n. 180, p. 128-140.

Detterman, R.L., and Hartsock, J.K., 1966, Geology of the Iniskin-Tuxedni region, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 512, 78 p.

Dixon, J.P., and Stihler, S.D., 2009, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2008: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 467, 88 p. Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/467/

Dixon, J.P., Stihler, S.D., Power, J.A., and Searcy, C.K., 2010, Catalog of earthquake hypocenters at Alaskan volcanoes: January 1 through December 31, 2009: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 531, 84 p. Available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/531/

McGimsey, R.G., and Wallace, K.L., 1999, 1997 volcanic activity in Alaska and Kamchatka: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 99-0448, 42 p.

McGimsey, R.G., Neal, C.A., and Girina, O., 2004, 1999 Volcanic activity in Alaska and Kamchatka: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 2004-1033, 49 p.

McGimsey, R.G., Neal, C.A., Dixon, J.P., and Ushakov, S., 2008, 2005 Volcanic activity in Alaska, Kamchatka, and the Kurile Islands: Summary of events and response of the Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5269, 94 p.

Neal, C.A., Doukas, M.P., and McGimsey, R.G., 1995, 1994 volcanic activity in Alaska-Summary of events and response of Alaska Volcano Observatory: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 95-271, 18 p. [Iliamna, p. 4-5].

Waythomas, C.F. and Miller, T.P., 1999, Preliminary Volcano-Hazard Assessment for Iliamna Volcano, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report OF 99-373.

Geologic Background. Iliamna is a prominentglacier-covered stratovolcano in Lake Clark National Park on the western side of Cook Inlet, about 225 km SW of Anchorage. Its flat-topped summit is flanked on the south, along a 5-km-long ridge, by the prominent North and South Twin Peaks, satellitic lava dome complexes. The Johnson Glacier dome complex lies on the NE flank. Steep headwalls on the S and E flanks expose an inaccessible cross-section of the volcano. Major glaciers radiate from the summit, and valleys below the summit contain debris-avalanche and lahar deposits. Only a few major Holocene explosive eruptions have occurred from the deeply dissected volcano, which lacks a distinct crater. Most of the reports of historical eruptions may represent plumes from vigorous fumaroles E and SE of the summit, which are often mistaken for eruption columns (Miller et al., 1998). Eruptions producing pyroclastic flows have been dated at as recent as about 300 and 140 years ago, and elevated seismicity accompanying dike emplacement beneath the volcano was recorded in 1996.

Information Contacts: Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of a) U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667 USA (URL: http://www.avo.alaska.edu/), b) Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA, and c) Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA (URL: http://www.dggs.alaska.gov/); Alaskan Dispatch (URL: http://www.alaskadispatch.com/).

In our last report on Masaya volcano, we reviewed field investigations and gas measurements from 2008-2011 including the attempt to launch a small Zeppelin as an experiment to measure gas emissions in March 2011 (BGVN 36:11). Here we present results from monitoring efforts focused on the elevated activity that has continued from Masaya's Santiago crater, one of the nested summit craters in Nindirí cone (figure 30). New gas measurements and field observations have become available from the Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER) from November 2011 through March 2012. Reports were also available for Masaya's Comalito cinder cone, a site of continuous gas emissions and elevated temperatures. In February 2012, INETER met with collaborators from both Simon Fraser University (Canada) and The Open University (UK). We highlight some of the results from these collaborators including mapping and modeling of Masaya's hydrothermal complex, results from long-term SO₂ flux monitoring, and a conceptual model that links magma chamber dynamics with intermittent explosive activity.

Figure 30. In this false-color image, Masaya caldera is well-defined. Landsat bands 4,3,2 emphasize vegetation (red) and soil (brown to yellow) and the panchromatic analysis improved the distinction between dark rock (lava) and water (Masaya lake, at the E edge of the caldera) (NASA Landsat Program, 2007). Annotation is based on sketch maps by Mooser and others (1958) and Girard and van Wyk de Vries (2005); image processed by GVP.

The false-color image of Masaya (figure 30) and the surrounding area is a standard composite image (bands 4,3,2) captured by Landsat on 25 March 2001, during Nicaragua's dry season (November through April). Here, vegetation appears in shades of red (darker in areas with denser vegetation), urban areas are cyan blue, and soils vary from dark to light browns. Located just 500 m E of Santiago crater, Masaya crater is distinguished by older deposits, last active around 150 AD, and contains a ring of vegetation (which appears as a pale pink circle). Masaya's recent lava flows have been contained within the larger caldera except for those dating from 1670 when lava ponded along the northern caldera rim and spilled over to cover more than 1 km² outside the caldera.

In November 2011, INETER recorded little activity from Masaya. No field visits were made and no earthquakes were large enough to locate hypocenters. Seismicity that month was low, at 50 RSAM units.

On 12 December 2011, INETER conducted site visits to Masaya's active crater (Santiago) and Comalito cinder cone. With an infrared thermometer, temperatures were measured from vents within Santiago crater; the highest temperatures measured were 42 and 45°C. The field investigators learned from National Park personnel that, recently during a 2-hour period, booming noises were heard from Santiago crater. INETER suggested that the noise resulted from strong gas release from deep within the crater - no visible material was ejected during the episodes. Areas of gas release could be visually identified within the crater; these were also locations where debris had been shed from the S and SW walls. Rockfalls from these locations were likely affecting gas emissions.

Additional visits to Comalito cone (figure 30), a satellite cone located less than 2 km NE of Santiago crater, allowed in situ measurements of fumarole temperatures. Four sites were measured; the highest temperature was 79°C, the lowest was 75°C (fumaroles 4 and 1 respectively). These temperatures were considered typical compared to others during 2011 (as compiled by INETER; figure 31). The lowest temperatures of the year 2011 were recorded in May and July with some values as low as 60-65°C.

Figure 31. Temperature measurements made by INETER during 2011 at Masaya's Comalito cone. Four fumaroles were measured consistently throughout the year. Courtesy of INETER.

To quantify SO₂ gas emissions, INETER used a mobile Mini DOAS throughout the year transported on two different routes. The road between Ticuantepe and San Juan de la Concepción was the closest route available when the plume trended SW. An additional route, at a greater distance (figure 25 from BGVN 36:11) was available between Las Quatro Esquinas and El Crucero. On 13 December, cloud cover limited the number of successful traverses; however, an average SO₂ flux of 648 metric tons per day (t/d) was calculated from three of the six traverses. This was a significant increase compared to values obtained in October 2011 when 13 successful traverses that month yielded an average of 153 t/d. These values (and others in this report) have not been corrected for meteorological conditions and error calculations were not available during this reporting period.

On 23 January 2012 INETER conducted traverses below Masaya's plume with a Mini DOAS. Measurements along both routes, proximal (Ticuantepe and San Juan de la Concepción) and distal (Las Quatro Esquinas and El Crucero) were attempted. From 10 calculations, SO₂ flux from the proximal route yielded 801 t/d. From the distal route, the average flux rate was 543 t/d.

INETER conducted fieldwork during 30-31 January 2012, visiting Santiago crater and Comalito cone. Temperatures from fumarole sites on Comalito had maximum temperatures of 70°C (fumarole 4) and 78°C (fumarole 2) on 30 January. The maximum temperature measured from Santiago crater had increased to 95°C.

On 1 February 2012, INETER visited Comalito cone and reported fumarole temperatures. The highest temperature was 97°C (fumarole 1); on 23 February the highest temperature was 86°C (fumarole 2). Fieldwork also included visits to Santiago crater; temperatures within the crater were relatively low, 75 and 70°C (from 1 February and 23 February, respectively). SO₂ flux from Mini DOAS from the closest route (Ticuantepe and San Juan de la Concepción) yielded an average of 943 t/d based on 12 traverses, continuing the trend of increased SO₂ emissions since December 2011.

In March 2012, National Park personnel reported that acoustic noise from the crater was less frequent compared to the previous month. Also, visible gas emissions appeared concentrated at the SW and innermost portions of Santiago crater. On 12 March 2012, INETER visited Masaya and measured temperatures from Santiago crater. A wide range of values was recorded: 100°C to 43°C. Relatively stable temperatures were measured from Comalito cone: 73°C to 76°C. The highest temperatures were measured at fumaroles 3 and 4.

On 20 March INETER conducted Mini DOAS traverses beneath Masaya's SW-trending gas plume. On the proximal route, 12 traverses were successful and determined an average SO₂ flux of 1002 t/d suggesting the increasing trend that began in early December 2011 was continuing. Without error calculations and assessing meteorological conditions, however, this trend could not be directly interpreted.

Geohydrology. Long-term interest in diffuse CO₂ gas emissions spurred recent investigations into Masaya's hydrothermal system. Mauri and others (2012) found active hydrothermal anomalies under many of the cinder cones and investigated these conditions with field measurements of soil CO₂ concentration, self-potential (SP), soil temperatures, and flow-path modeling (figure 32). Self potential methods make observations "of the static natural voltage existing between sets of points on the ground (Sheriff, 1982)". From Comalito cone, Nindirí cone, and the lower slopes of Masaya, CO₂ gas concentrations ranged from 26 to 43 ppm (mean values). During a 5-year investigation, the authors collected SP geophysical data over extensive transects within the caldera. The datasets yielded significant correlations between high CO₂ soil concentrations and SP anomalies. Water depths were determined by processing the SP data with mathematical techniques (wavelets from the Poisson kernel family). They concluded that interconnected structures (ring faults, fissures, and dikes) serve as flow paths for gas, fluids, and heat. These structures also have the potential to block groundwater flow, a conclusion suggested by their models of groundwater contributions to Masaya Lake (Laguna de Masaya) (figure 32).

Figure 32. Groundwater flow model for Masaya volcano taken from Mauri and others (2012). (a) A map indicating key geographic and geologic features including groundwater flow. (b,c) Two vertical profiles with a legend at the bottom. The groundwater was mapped using two geo-electrical prospecting techniques. The self-potential (SP) technique yielded data processed with multi-scale wavelet tomography (MWT). The second technique was the transient electromagnetic method (TEM) (see key and text).

In Figure 32a, we see the spatial localization of uprising fluids associated with hydrothermal activity (green diamonds) and gravitational water flow (blue squares) within Masaya caldera for which depths have been determined. The names of volcanic cones are in blue; crater names and ground structures are in dark red; dark green dashed lines are the fissure vent structures; solid red lines represent the inferred structures (faults, fissures) based on previous work by Crenshaw and others (1982) and Harris (2009). The red dashed lines are the hypothetical structures (faults, fissures) (Crenshaw and others, 1982). The black dashed line is the inferred limit of the caldera.

The three segments traced in Figure 32a correspond to cross-sections along A-D-B (figure 32b) and C-D-B (figure 32c). Cross-section A-D-B represents the water flow direction across the caldera while the cross-section along profile C-D-B represents the water flow direction through the active Santiago crater and across the caldera. The dashed red lines represent underground structures in cases where the dip orientation is unknown and are based on the work of Williams (1983) and Crenshaw and others (1982). Blue lines with a single dot above the center represent water flow having a flow direction different than the cross-section view. Solid arrows represent the flow direction inferred from the self potential/elevation gradient. Elevations of the shallow flow direction (blue and solid green arrows) were estimated from multi-scale wavelet tomography (MWT). MWT is a signal processing method based on waves that allow for location of dipole and monopole sources which correspond to the electrical anomalies generated by water flow through bedrock. The dashed grey line and dashed blue arrows are deep hypothetical flows from the transient electromagnetic method (TEM) results (MacNeil and others, 2007). TEM results were considered in this study because they offered a different level of sensitivity to SP method and, at the time of the study, direct well data was not available to correlate results, making it difficult to determine which model (MWT or TEM) best represented the true water depth.

Long-term SO₂ fluxes and windspeed-induced errors. Nadeau and Williams-Jones (2009) consolidated data spanning three decades (figure 33) and assessed current methods for constraining uncertainties in SO₂ data collected on traverses with UV correlation spectrometers (COSPEC/DOAS/FLYSPEC). The authors agreed with previous investigators that the following factors contribute to uncertainties: variable local windspeed, emission rate, dry deposition of sulfur from the plume, and conversion of SO₂ to sulfate aerosols within the plume. Of these factors, the authors stressed that for low-lying volcanoes such as Masaya, the local wind patterns cause the largest errors. "One must be wary of using one blanket plume speed value for all data collected at different locations, as it can result in misleading variations within the SO₂ flux dataset (Nadeau and Williams-Jones, 2009)." At Masaya, this led to as much a 50% apparent decrease in measured SO₂ flux between the proximal and distal routes.

Figure 33. Mean SO2 fluxes grouped by month from numerous field campaigns at Masaya. Error bars represent 1 standard deviation of 1 month of measurements. Note the break in the x-axis. Data from Nadeau and Williams-Jones (2009), which expanded on previous work by numerous investigators listed in that publication.

Modeling Masaya's magma system. Glyn Williams-Jones from Simon Fraser University visited Masaya with student researchers on 21 February 2012. At the National Park facilities, this group presented recent research and results from the 8-year-long collaborative effort between Simon Fraser University, The Open University, and INETER. Williams-Jones reviewed the primary monitoring techniques applied to Masaya and preliminary results regarding the environmental impact of the persistent degassing. In particular, gravity measurements, GPS, and DOAS/FLYSPEC have been used to characterize activity. SO₂ flux and air quality measurements have been part of an additional effort to characterize environmental impacts related to resident's health. The varying trend in the SO₂ flux observed since 1976 has been interpreted as being related to varying rates of magma convection in the volcanic plumbing system, as opposed to models invoking intermittent magma supply (Williams-Jones and others, 2003; Stix, 2007).

The model invoking convection within the system links Masaya's periodic explosive activity with intense, long-term degassing (Williams-Jones and others, 2003; Stix, 2007). The accumulation of a gas-rich magma within a shallow reservoir could develop a buoyant, pressurized foam. This setting would be susceptible to disruptions (by convection cells or structural adjustments, for example) and could be destabilized, leading to explosive activity.

References. Crenshaw, W.B., Williams, S.N., and Stoiber, R.E., 1982, Fault location by radon and mercury detection at an active volcano in Nicaragua, Nature, 300: 345?346.

Harris, A.J.L., 2009, The pit-craters and pit-crater-filling lavas of Masaya volcano, Bulletin of Volcanology, 71(5): 541?558.

MacNeil, R.E., Sanford, W.E., Connor, C.B., Sandberg, S.K., and Diez, M., 2007, Investigation of the groundwater system at Masaya Caldera, Nicaragua, using transient electromagnetics and numerical simulation, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 166(3?4): 216?232.

Mauri, G., Williams-Jones, G., Saracco, G., and Zurek, J.M., 2012, A geochemical and geophysical investigation of the hydrothermal complex of Masaya volcano, Nicaragua, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 227?228: 15?31.

Nadeau, P.A. and Williams-Jones, G., 2009, Apparent downwind depletion of volcanic SO₂ flux-lessons from Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua, Bulletin of Volcanology, 71: 389?400.

NASA Landsat Program, 2007, Landsat ETM+ scene 7dx20010325, Orthorectified, USGS, Sioux Falls, Mar. 25, 2001.

Sheriff, R.E., 1982, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, Eighth Edition, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, OK, 266 pp.

Stix, J., 2007, Stability and instability of quiescently active volcanoes: the case of Masaya, Nicaragua. Geology, 35(6):535?538.

Williams, S.N., 1983, Geology and eruptive mechanisms of Masaya Caldera complex, Nicaragua [PhD Thesis]: Hanover, New Hampshire, Dartmouth College, 169 p.

Williams-Jones, G., Rymer, H., and Rothery, D.A., 2003, Gravity changes and passive SO₂ degassing at the Masaya caldera complex, Nicaragua, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 123: 137?160.

Geologic Background. Masaya volcano in Nicaragua has erupted frequently since the time of the Spanish Conquistadors, when an active lava lake prompted attempts to extract the volcano's molten "gold" until it was found to be basalt rock upon cooling. It lies within the massive Pleistocene Las Sierras caldera and is itself a broad, 6 x 11 km basaltic caldera with steep-sided walls up to 300 m high. The caldera is filled on its NW end by more than a dozen vents that erupted along a circular, 4-km-diameter fracture system. The Nindirí and Masaya cones, the source of observed eruptions, were constructed at the southern end of the fracture system and contain multiple summit craters, including the currently active Santiago crater. A major basaltic Plinian tephra erupted from Masaya about 6,500 years ago. Recent lava flows cover much of the caldera floor and there is a lake at the far eastern end. A lava flow from the 1670 eruption overtopped the north caldera rim. Periods of long-term vigorous gas emission at roughly quarter-century intervals have caused health hazards and crop damage.

Information Contacts: Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), Apartado Postal 2110, Managua, Nicaragua (URL: http://www.ineter.gob.ni/); Glyn Williams-Jones, Department of Earth Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada (URL: http://www.sfu.ca/earth-sciences.html); Hazel Rymer, Department of Environment, Earth and Ecosystems, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK (URL: http://www8.open.ac.uk/science/environment-earth-ecosystems/).

Semeru is one of the most active volcanoes worldwide and is of special concern because the drainage area is heavily populated. The volcano has a steep canyon that extends from the summit to the SE, which has funneled pyroclastic flows and lahars into populated areas. The decades-long seismicity from Semeru has typically included mildly explosive Strombolian style eruptions, earthquakes and tremor, ash plumes, and occasional pyroclastic flows (BGVN 32:03, 34:05, and 35:08). See the location of Semeru with respect to the regional setting in figure 17.

Figure 17. Index map of Semeru (red triangle) with respect to other Holocene regional volcanoes (black triangles). Courtesy of CVGHM and VDAP.

According to reporting by the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) and the USGS Volcano Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP), six large explosions between 1981 and 2002 resulted in many fatalities. They noted that since 1995, pyroclastic flows have been restricted to S drainages such as Kali Kembar; however, a small proportion of recent flows have entered the headwaters of Kali Koboan on the SE, which leads to heavily populated areas, including Sumberrejo and Candipuro (figure 18). This report discusses activity between February 2010 (the end of the previous report) and 2 May 2012.

Figure 18. 2010 map of Semeru and adjacent area, showing drainage channels from the summit and nearby population centers. Note the location of the 2012 lava flows just S and SE of the volcano. The area around the SE quadrant is heavily populated with a Volcano Population Index (VPI10) of 7,000. In previous eruptions, lahars reached as far as 30 km from the summit. Should similar lahars occur in the future, as many as 150,000 more inhabitants along major drainages could be affected. Based in part on a summary of activity by CVGHM and VDAP. Modified from Siswowidjoyo and others (1997) and Thouret and others (2007); VPI10 was calulated using LandScan 2010.

On 4 November 2010, CVGHM reported that from August to October 2010 seismic activity at Semeru had increased, and "smoke" and occasional gas plumes rose 400-500 m above the crater. During September incandescent avalanches traveled 400 m SE into the Besuk Kembar drainage on three occasions. Incandescence from the crater was observed in October. Incandescent avalanches traveled 600 m into Besuk Kembar on 2 November. Two days later, they reached 4 km into the Besuk Kembar and Besuk Bang (S) drainages (figure 18). CVGHM noted that the lava dome in the Jonggring Saloko crater was growing. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4).

According to the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), during 18-19 November 2010, ash plumes rose to an altitude of 4.6 km and drifted 75-110 km N and NW. Sulfur dioxide gas was detected 75 km SW.

According to Volcano Discovery, the group observed 2-3 small-to-medium ash explosions per day during a photo expedition in May 2011, but noted that activity had increased during the past weeks.

In an account posted online by Volcano Discovery on 15 September 2011, the group visited the volcano and noted that an active lava dome was growing inside the crater and that 3-4 eruptions occurred daily. They inferred that the size and frequency of the eruptions had apparently increased in the past days (figure 19).

Figure 19. Photo of Semeru's crater on 1 September 2011, with a lava dome. Courtesy of Volcano Discovery.

CVGHM reported that on 29 December 2011, both earthquakes and tremor increased, and dense white-and-gray plumes rose as high as 600 m above the active crater. During January 2012, crater incandescence was observed, and avalanches carried incandescent material 200-400 m away from the crater. According to a 4 January 2012 article in the Jakara Globe, a government official indicated that authorities had closed the trail to the peak of Semeru because of heavy rain and an increased danger of landslides.

On 2 February 2012 a large explosion was reported and incandescent material fell up to 2.5 km from the crater. Tables 20 and 21 indicate the types and numbers of earthquakes and other seismic events reported by CVGHM for February to April 2012. Based on the increased seismic activity and visual observations, CVGHM raised the Alert Level from 2 to 3 on 2 February 2012.

Table 20. Types and numbers of earthquakes and plumes observed at Semeru during February-April 2012. Courtesy of CVGHM.

Table 21. Observed Semeru plumes during February-April 2012. Data from CVGHM. The only other plume noted by the Darwin VAAC between February 2010 and May 2012 was on 18-19 November 2010; this plume was noted in the text. Courtesy of CVGHM.

CVGHM reported that during 1-29 February 2012 multiple pyroclastic flows from Semeru traveled 500 and 2,500 m into the Besuk Kembar and Besuk Kobokan rivers (on the S flank), respectively. Government officials set up an exclusion zone on the SE flank where pyroclastic flows had occurred.

During 1 February-30 April 2012, dense gray-to-white plumes rose 100-500 m above Jongring Seloko crater and drifted W and N. Incandescence was visible up to 50 m above the crater during 1 February-31 March. Seismicity decreased toward the end of April, although the lava dome grew that month.

According to a news account (People's Daily Online) on 1 March 2012, seismic activity had increased from 28 to 38 tremors per day. According to the news account, Dr. Surono, head of CVGHM, stated that the volcano was erupting daily, emitting ash plumes, and tremor occurred every 15-30 minutes. He also noted that the volcanic dome was increasing in size.

According to Volcano Discovery, an expedition leader visiting Semeru observed frequent explosions every few minutes on 27 March 2012, with many powerful enough to eject glowing bombs that produced small glowing avalanches down the S flank.

According to CVGHM and VDAP, a new lava dome started to extrude in late 2011 directly over a dome formed in 2010. The new dome probably will not completely fill the summit crater because it is being drained by two new lava flows, both flowing SE. The longer of the two lava flows extended about 1.9 km from the summit vent. Pyroclastic flows are being generated by collapse of the steep termini of the lava flows, and their deposits extend to 3.2 km from the summit, i.e. 0.7 km from the front shown in figure 18. In addition, the collapsing lava flow fronts are resulting in high levels of avalanche and rockfall activity. According to CVGHM and VDAP, the closest villages in the highest-risk areas on the S and SE flanks are about 10 km from the summit.

On 2 May 2012 CVGHM lowered the Alert Level to 2, but reminded the public not to approach the crater within a 4-km radius.

Geologic Background. Semeru, the highest volcano on Java, and one of its most active, lies at the southern end of a volcanic massif extending north to the Tengger caldera. The steep-sided volcano, also referred to as Mahameru (Great Mountain), rises above coastal plains to the south. Gunung Semeru was constructed south of the overlapping Ajek-ajek and Jambangan calderas. A line of lake-filled maars was constructed along a N-S trend cutting through the summit, and cinder cones and lava domes occupy the eastern and NE flanks. Summit topography is complicated by the shifting of craters from NW to SE. Frequent 19th and 20th century eruptions were dominated by small-to-moderate explosions from the summit crater, with occasional lava flows and larger explosive eruptions accompanied by pyroclastic flows that have reached the lower flanks of the volcano.

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Volcano Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP), US Geological Survey (USGS), 1300 SE Cardinal Court, Bldg. 10, Suite 100, Vancouver, WA 98683; Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac); Jakarta Globe (URL: http://www.thejakartaglobe.com); People’s Daily Online (URL: english.peopledaily.com; Volcano Discovery (URL: http://mobile.volcanodiscovery.com).

Our previous report of Soputan volcano chronicled activity during July-September 2011 (BGVN 36:11). Table 9 gives a brief history of activity and highlights activity through early May 2012. The data sources are the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) for satellite monitoring of ash plumes and the Indonesian Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM) for seismic monitoring and assignment of alert levels. According to a 28 May 2012 report by CVGHM, Soputan's activities are characterized by the growth of lava domes that have been accreting steadily since 1991. The accretion of these lava domes has been frequently accompanied by ash/cinder eruptions.

Table 9. Summary of volcanic ash observations and other activity at Soputan volcano from late June 2011 through mid-2012. 'VA' refers to volcanic ash. Courtesy of Darwin VAAC and CVGHM.

On 28 May 2012, CVGHM raised the Alert Level of Soputan from 2 to 3 (on a scale of 1-4) following increasing sesimic activity. According to CVGHM, increasing activity had been observed from 21-27 May, when the volcano spewed out white smoke to heights of between 50 to 150 m above the summit. Seismicity increased significantly on 25 May.

CVGHM called on local residents to stay beyond a 6 km radius from the volcano's summit. It also warned residents of the threat of a lahar, urging people living near Ranowangko, Pentu, Lawian and Popang rivers to remain alert and aware.

MODVOLC Thermal Alerts. MODVOLC satellite thermal alerts were measured at Soputan on 2-3 July, 9 July, and 14-15 August 2011, all on the volcano's W flank. These were the first such measurements since the volcano's last eruption, during late October to early November 2008 (BGVN 33:09). Since 8 August 2011 to early March 2012, no alerts have been measured.

Geologic Background. The Soputan stratovolcano on the southern rim of the Quaternary Tondano caldera on the northern arm of Sulawesi Island is one of Sulawesi's most active volcanoes. The youthful, largely unvegetated volcano is the only active cone in the Sempu-Soputan volcanic complex, which includes the Soputan caldera, Rindengan, and Manimporok (3.5 km ESE). Kawah Masem maar was formed in the W part of the caldera and contains a crater lake; sulfur has been extracted from fumarolic areas in the maar since 1938. Recent eruptions have originated at both the summit crater and Aeseput, a prominent NE-flank vent that formed in 1906 and was the source of intermittent major lava flows until 1924.

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Volcanological Survey of Indonesia (VSI), Jalan Diponegoro 57 Bandung, Jawa Barat 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://vsi.esdm.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, Northern Territory 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac); MODVOLC, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Jakarta Post (URL: http://www.thejakartapost.com).