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Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network

All reports of volcanic activity published by the Smithsonian since 1968 are available through a monthly table of contents or by searching for a specific volcano. Until 1975, reports were issued for individual volcanoes as information became available; these have been organized by month for convenience. Later publications were done in a monthly newsletter format. Links go to the profile page for each volcano with the Bulletin tab open.

Information is preliminary at time of publication and subject to change.

Recently Published Bulletin Reports

Ibu (Indonesia) Daily ash explosions continue, along with thermal anomalies in the crater, October 2022-May 2023

Dukono (Indonesia) Continuing ash emissions, SO2 plumes, and thermal signals during October 2022-May 2023

Sabancaya (Peru) Explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity persist during November 2022-April 2023

Sheveluch (Russia) Significant explosions destroyed part of the lava-dome complex during April 2023

Bezymianny (Russia) Explosions, ash plumes, lava flows, and avalanches during November 2022-April 2023

Chikurachki (Russia) New explosive eruption during late January-early February 2023

Marapi (Indonesia) New explosive eruption with ash emissions during January-March 2023

Kikai (Japan) Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023

Lewotolok (Indonesia) Strombolian eruption continues through April 2023 with intermittent ash plumes

Barren Island (India) Thermal activity during December 2022-March 2023

Villarrica (Chile) Nighttime crater incandescence, ash emissions, and seismicity during October 2022-March 2023

Fuego (Guatemala) Daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, avalanches, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023



Ibu (Indonesia) — June 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Ibu

Indonesia

1.488°N, 127.63°E; summit elev. 1325 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Daily ash explosions continue, along with thermal anomalies in the crater, October 2022-May 2023

Persistent eruptive activity since April 2008 at Ibu, a stratovolcano on Indonesian’s Halmahera Island, has consisted of daily explosive ash emissions and plumes, along with observations of thermal anomalies (BGVN 47:04). The current eruption continued during October 2022-May 2023, described below, based on advisories issued by the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), daily reports by MAGMA Indonesia (a PVMBG platform), and the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and various satellite data. The Alert Level during the reporting period remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), except raised briefly to 3 on 27 May, and the public was warned to stay at least 2 km away from the active crater and 3.5 km away on the N side of the volcano.

According to MAGMA Indonesia, during October 2022-May 2023, daily gray-and-white ash plumes of variable densities rose 200-1,000 m above the summit and drifted in multiple directions. On 30 October and 11 November, plumes rose a maximum of 2 km and 1.5 km above the summit, respectively (figures 42 and 43). According to the Darwin VAAC, discrete ash emissions on 13 November rose to 2.1 km altitude, or 800 m above the summit, and drifted W, and multiple ash emissions on 15 November rose 1.4 km above the summit and drifted NE. Occasional larger ash explosions through May 2023 prompted PVMBG to issue Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) alerts (table 6); the Aviation Color Code remained at Orange throughout this period.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 42. Larger explosion from Ibu’s summit crater on 30 October 2022 that generated a plume that rose 2 km above the summit. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 43. Larger explosion from Ibu’s summit crater on 11 November 2022 that generated a plume that rose 1.5 km above the summit. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Table 6. Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) ash plume alerts for Ibu issued by PVMBG during October 2022-May 2023. Maximum height above the summit was estimated by a ground observer. VONAs in January-May 2023 all described the ash plumes as dense.

Date Time (local) Max height above summit Direction
17 Oct 2022 0858 800 m SW
18 Oct 2022 1425 800 m S
19 Oct 2022 2017 600 m SW
21 Oct 2022 0916 800 m NW
16 Jan 2023 1959 600 m NE
22 Jan 2023 0942 1,000 m E
29 Jan 2023 2138 1,000 m E
10 May 2023 0940 800 m NW
10 May 2023 2035 600 m E
21 May 2023 2021 600 m W
21 May 2023 2140 1,000 m W
29 May 2023 1342 800 m N
31 May 2023 1011 1,000 m SW

Sentinel-2 L1C satellite images throughout the reporting period show two, sometimes three persistent thermal anomalies in the summit crater, with the most prominent hotspot from the top of a cone within the crater. Clear views were more common during March-April 2023, when a vent and lava flows on the NE flank of the intra-crater cone could be distinguished (figure 44). White-to-grayish emissions were also observed during brief periods when weather clouds allowed clear views.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 44. Sentinel-2 L2A satellite images of Ibu on 10 April 2023. The central cone within the summit crater (1.3 km diameter) and lava flows (gray) can be seen in the true color image (left, bands 4, 3, 2). Thermal anomalies from the small crater of the intra-crater cone, a NE-flank vent, and the end of the lava flow are apparent in the infrared image (right, bands 12, 11, 8A). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

The MIROVA space-based volcano hotspot detection system recorded almost daily thermal anomalies throughout the reporting period, though cloud cover often interfered with detections. Data from imaging spectroradiometers aboard NASA’s Aqua and Terra satellites and processed using the MODVOLC algorithm (MODIS-MODVOLC) recorded hotspots on one day during October 2022 and December 2022, two days in April 2023, three days in November 2022 and May 2023, and four days in March 2023.

Geologic Background. The truncated summit of Gunung Ibu stratovolcano along the NW coast of Halmahera Island has large nested summit craters. The inner crater, 1 km wide and 400 m deep, has contained several small crater lakes. The 1.2-km-wide outer crater is breached on the N, creating a steep-walled valley. A large cone grew ENE of the summit, and a smaller one to the WSW has fed a lava flow down the W flank. A group of maars is located below the N and W flanks. The first observed and recorded eruption was a small explosion from the summit crater in 1911. Eruptive activity began again in December 1998, producing a lava dome that eventually covered much of the floor of the inner summit crater along with ongoing explosive ash emissions.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia (Multiplatform Application for Geohazard Mitigation and Assessment in Indonesia), Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).


Dukono (Indonesia) — June 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Dukono

Indonesia

1.6992°N, 127.8783°E; summit elev. 1273 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Continuing ash emissions, SO2 plumes, and thermal signals during October 2022-May 2023

Dukono, a remote volcano on Indonesia’s Halmahera Island, has been erupting continuously since 1933, with frequent ash explosions and sulfur dioxide plumes (BGVN 46:11, 47:10). This activity continued during October 2022 through May 2023, based on reports from the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG; also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and satellite data. During this period, the Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4) and the public was warned to remain outside of the 2-km exclusion zone. The highest reported plume of the period reached 9.4 km above the summit on 14 November 2022.

According to MAGMA Indonesia (a platform developed by PVMBG), white, gray, or dark plumes of variable densities were observed almost every day during the reporting period, except when fog obscured the volcano (figure 33). Plumes generally rose 25-450 m above the summit, but rose as high as 700-800 m on several days, somewhat lower than the maximum heights reached earlier in 2022 when plumes reached as high as 1 km. However, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 14 November 2022, a discrete ash plume rose 9.4 km above the summit (10.7 km altitude), accompanied by a strong hotspot and a sulfur dioxide signal observed in satellite imagery; a continuous ash plume that day and through the 15th rose to 2.1-2.4 km altitude and drifted NE.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 33. Webcam photo of a gas-and-steam plume rising from Dukono on the morning of 28 January 2023. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Sentinel-2 images were obscured by weather clouds almost every viewing day during the reporting period. However, the few reasonably clear images showed a hotspot and white or gray emissions and plumes. Strong SO2 plumes from Dukono were present on many days during October 2022-May 2023, as detected using the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite (figure 34).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 34. A strong SO2 signal from Dukono on 23 April 2023 was the most extensive plume detected during the reporting period. Courtesy of the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Geologic Background. Reports from this remote volcano in northernmost Halmahera are rare, but Dukono has been one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes. More-or-less continuous explosive eruptions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have occurred since 1933. During a major eruption in 1550 CE, a lava flow filled in the strait between Halmahera and the N-flank Gunung Mamuya cone. This complex volcano presents a broad, low profile with multiple summit peaks and overlapping craters. Malupang Wariang, 1 km SW of the summit crater complex, contains a 700 x 570 m crater that has also been active during historical time.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia (Multiplatform Application for Geohazard Mitigation and Assessment in Indonesia), Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).


Sabancaya (Peru) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Sabancaya

Peru

15.787°S, 71.857°W; summit elev. 5960 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity persist during November 2022-April 2023

Sabancaya is located in Peru, NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca. Eruptions date back to 1750 and have been characterized by explosions, phreatic activity, ash plumes, and ashfall. The current eruption period began in November 2016 and has more recently consisted of daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report updates activity during November 2022 through April 2023 using information from Instituto Geophysico del Peru (IGP) that use weekly activity reports and various satellite data.

Intermittent low-to-moderate power thermal anomalies were reported by the MIROVA project during November 2022 through April 2023 (figure 119). There were few short gaps in thermal activity during mid-December 2022, late December-to-early January 2023, late January to mid-February, and late February. According to data recorded by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, there were a total of eight thermal hotspots: three in November 2022, three in February 2023, one in March, and one in April. On clear weather days, some of this thermal anomaly was visible in infrared satellite imagery showing the active lava dome in the summit crater (figure 120). Almost daily moderate-to-strong sulfur dioxide plumes were recorded during the reporting period by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite (figure 121). Many of these plumes exceeded 2 Dobson Units (DU) and drifted in multiple directions.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 119. Intermittent low-to-moderate thermal anomalies were detected during November 2022 through April 2023 at Sabancaya, as shown in this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). There were brief gaps in thermal activity during mid-December 2022, late December-to-early January 2023, late January to mid-February, and late February. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 120. Infrared (bands 12, 11, 8A) satellite images showed a constant thermal anomaly in the summit crater of Sabancaya on 14 January 2023 (top left), 28 February 2023 (top right), 5 March 2023 (bottom left), and 19 April 2023 (bottom right), represented by the active lava dome. Sometimes gas-and-steam and ash emissions also accompanied this activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 121. Moderate-to-strong sulfur dioxide plumes were detected almost every day, rising from Sabancaya by the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite throughout the reporting period; the DU (Dobson Unit) density values were often greater than 2. Plumes from 23 November 2022 (top left), 26 December 2022 (top middle), 10 January 2023 (top right), 15 February 2023 (bottom left), 13 March 2023 (bottom middle), and 21 April 2023 (bottom right) that drifted SW, SW, W, SE, W, and SW, respectively. Courtesy of NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

IGP reported that moderate activity during November and December 2022 continued; during November, an average number of explosions were reported each week: 30, 33, 36, and 35, and during December, it was 32, 40, 47, 52, and 67. Gas-and-ash plumes in November rose 3-3.5 km above the summit and drifted E, NE, SE, S, N, W, and SW. During December the gas-and-ash plumes rose 2-4 km above the summit and drifted in different directions. There were 1,259 volcanic earthquakes recorded during November and 1,693 during December. Seismicity also included volcano-tectonic-type events that indicate rock fracturing events. Slight inflation was observed in the N part of the volcano near Hualca Hualca (4 km N). Thermal activity was frequently reported in the crater at the active lava dome (figure 120).

Explosive activity continued during January and February 2023. The average number of explosions were reported each week during January (51, 50, 60, and 59) and February (43, 54, 51, and 50). Gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.6-2.9 km above the summit and drifted NW, SW, and W during January and rose 1.4-2.8 above the summit and drifted W, SW, E, SE, N, S, NW, and NE during February. IGP also detected 1,881 volcanic earthquakes during January and 1,661 during February. VT-type earthquakes were also reported. Minor inflation persisted near Hualca Hualca. Satellite imagery showed continuous thermal activity in the crater at the lava dome (figure 120).

During March, the average number of explosions each week was 46, 48, 31, 35, and 22 and during April, it was 29, 41, 31, and 27. Accompanying gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.7-2.6 km above the summit crater and drifted W, SW, NW, S, and SE during March. According to a Buenos Aires Volcano Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) notice, on 22 March at 1800 through 23 March an ash plume rose to 7 km altitude and drifted NW. By 0430 an ash plume rose to 7.6 km altitude and drifted W. On 24 and 26 March continuous ash emissions rose to 7.3 km altitude and drifted SW and on 28 March ash emissions rose to 7.6 km altitude. During April, gas-and-ash plumes rose 1.6-2.5 km above the summit and drifted W, SW, S, NW, NE, and E. Frequent volcanic earthquakes were recorded, with 1,828 in March and 1,077 in April, in addition to VT-type events. Thermal activity continued to be reported in the summit crater at the lava dome (figure 120).

Geologic Background. Sabancaya, located in the saddle NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca volcanoes, is the youngest of these volcanic centers and the only one to have erupted in historical time. The oldest of the three, Nevado Hualca Hualca, is of probable late-Pliocene to early Pleistocene age. The name Sabancaya (meaning "tongue of fire" in the Quechua language) first appeared in records in 1595 CE, suggesting activity prior to that date. Holocene activity has consisted of Plinian eruptions followed by emission of voluminous andesitic and dacitic lava flows, which form an extensive apron around the volcano on all sides but the south. Records of historical eruptions date back to 1750.

Information Contacts: Instituto Geofisico del Peru (IGP), Centro Vulcanológico Nacional (CENVUL), Calle Badajoz N° 169 Urb. Mayorazgo IV Etapa, Ate, Lima 15012, Perú (URL: https://www.igp.gob.pe/servicios/centro-vulcanologico-nacional/inicio); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard MD 20771, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Sheveluch (Russia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Sheveluch

Russia

56.653°N, 161.36°E; summit elev. 3283 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Significant explosions destroyed part of the lava-dome complex during April 2023

Sheveluch (also spelled Shiveluch) in Kamchatka, has had at least 60 large eruptions during the last 10,000 years. The summit is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide caldera that is breached to the S, and many lava domes occur on the outer flanks. The lava dome complex was constructed within the large open caldera. Frequent collapses of the dome complex have produced debris avalanches; the resulting deposits cover much of the caldera floor. A major south-flank collapse during a 1964 Plinian explosion produced a scarp in which a “Young Sheveluch” dome began to form in 1980. Repeated episodes of dome formation and destruction since then have produced major and minor ash plumes, pyroclastic flows, block-and-ash flows, and “whaleback domes” of spine-like extrusions in 1993 and 2020 (BGVN 45:11). The current eruption period began in August 1999 and has more recently consisted of lava dome growth, explosions, ash plumes, and avalanches (BGVN 48:01). This report covers a significant explosive eruption during early-to-mid-April 2023 that generated a 20 km altitude ash plume, produced a strong sulfur dioxide plume, and destroyed part of the lava-dome complex; activity described during January through April 2023 use information primarily from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and various satellite data.

Satellite data. Activity during the majority of this reporting period was characterized by continued lava dome growth, strong fumarole activity, explosions, and hot avalanches. According to the MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, 140 hotspots were detected through the reporting period, with 33 recorded in January 2023, 29 in February, 44 in March, and 34 in April. Frequent strong thermal activity was recorded during January 2023 through April, according to the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph and resulted from the continuously growing lava dome (figure 94). A slightly stronger pulse in thermal activity was detected in early-to-mid-April, which represented the significant eruption that destroyed part of the lava-dome complex. Thermal anomalies were also visible in infrared satellite imagery at the summit crater (figure 95).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 94. Strong and frequent thermal activity was detected at Sheveluch during January through April 2023, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). These thermal anomalies represented the continuously growing lava dome and frequent hot avalanches that affected the flanks. During early-to-mid-April a slightly stronger pulse represented the notable explosive eruption. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 95. Infrared (bands B12, B11, B4) satellite imagery showed persistent thermal anomalies at the lava dome of Sheveluch on 14 January 2023 (top left), 26 February 2023 (top right), and 15 March 2023 (bottom left). The true color image on 12 April 2023 (bottom right) showed a strong ash plume that drifted SW; this activity was a result of the strong explosive eruption during 11-12 April 2023. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

During January 2023 KVERT reported continued growth of the lava dome, accompanied by strong fumarolic activity, incandescence from the lava dome, explosions, ash plumes, and avalanches. Satellite data showed a daily thermal anomaly over the volcano. Video data showed ash plumes associated with collapses at the dome that generated avalanches that in turn produced ash plumes rising to 3.5 km altitude and drifting 40 km W on 4 January and rising to 7-7.5 km altitude and drifting 15 km SW on 5 January. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash that was associated with avalanches rose to 5-6 km altitude and extended 52-92 km W on 7 January. Explosions that same day produced ash plumes that rose to 7-7.5 km altitude and drifted 10 km W. According to a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) issued at 1344 on 19 January, explosions produced an ash cloud that was 15 x 25 km in size and rose to 9.6-10 km altitude, drifting 21-25 km W; as a result, the Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). Another VONA issued at 1635 reported that no more ash plumes were observed, and the ACC was lowered to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). On 22 January an ash plume from collapses and avalanches rose to 5 km altitude and drifted 25 km NE and SW; ash plumes associated with collapses extended 70 km NE on 27 and 31 January.

Lava dome growth, fumarolic activity, dome incandescence, and occasional explosions and avalanches continued during February and March. A daily thermal anomaly was visible in satellite data. Explosions on 1 February generated ash plumes that rose to 6.3-6.5 km altitude and extended 15 km NE. Video data showed an ash cloud from avalanches rising to 5.5 km altitude and drifting 5 km SE on 2 February. Satellite data showed gas-and-steam plumes containing some ash rose to 5-5.5 km altitude and drifted 68-110 km ENE and NE on 6 February, to 4.5-5 km altitude and drifted 35 km WNW on 22 February, and to 3.7-4 km altitude and drifted 47 km NE on 28 February. Scientists from the Kamchatka Volcanological Station (KVS) went on a field excursion on 25 February to document the growing lava dome, and although it was cloudy most of the day, nighttime incandescence was visible. Satellite data showed an ash plume extending up to 118 km E during 4-5 March. Video data from 1150 showed an ash cloud from avalanches rose to 3.7-5.5 km altitude and drifted 5-10 km ENE and E on 5 March. On 11 March an ash plume drifted 62 km E. On 27 March ash plumes rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted 100 km E. Avalanches and constant incandescence at the lava dome was focused on the E and NE slopes on 28 March. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash rose to 3.5 km altitude and moved 40 km E on 29 March. Ash plumes on 30 March rose to 3.5-3.7 km altitude and drifted 70 km NE.

Similar activity continued during April, with lava dome growth, strong fumarolic activity, incandescence in the dome, occasional explosions, and avalanches. A thermal anomaly persisted throughout the month. During 1-4 April weak ash plumes rose to 2.5-3 km altitude and extended 13-65 km SE and E.

Activity during 11 April 2023. The Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS) reported a significant increase in seismicity around 0054 on 11 April, as reported by strong explosions detected on 11 April beginning at 0110 that sent ash plumes up to 7-10 km altitude and extended 100-435 km W, WNW, NNW, WSW, and SW. According to a Tokyo VAAC report the ash plume rose to 15.8 km altitude. By 0158 the plume extended over a 75 x 100 km area. According to an IVS FEB RAS report, the eruptive column was not vertical: the initial plume at 0120 on 11 April deviated to the NNE, at 0000 on 12 April, it drifted NW, and by 1900 it drifted SW. KVS reported that significant pulses of activity occurred at around 0200, 0320, and then a stronger phase around 0600. Levin Dmitry took a video from near Békés (3 km away) at around 0600 showing a rising plume; he also reported that a pyroclastic flow traveled across the road behind him as he left the area. According to IVS FEB RAS, the pyroclastic flow traveled several kilometers SSE, stopping a few hundred meters from a bridge on the road between Klyuchi and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

Ashfall was first observed in Klyuchi (45 km SW) at 0630, and a large, black ash plume blocked light by 0700. At 0729 KVERT issued a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) raising the Aviation Color Code to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). It also stated that a large ash plume had risen to 10 km altitude and drifted 100 km W. Near-constant lightning strikes were reported in the plume and sounds like thunderclaps were heard until about 1000. According to IVS FEB RAS the cloud was 200 km long and 76 km wide by 0830, and was spreading W at altitudes of 6-12 km. In the Klyuchi Village, the layer of both ash and snow reached 8.5 cm (figure 96); ashfall was also reported in Kozyrevsk (112 km SW) at 0930, Mayskoye, Anavgay, Atlasovo, Lazo, and Esso. Residents in Klyuchi reported continued darkness and ashfall at 1100. In some areas, ashfall was 6 cm deep and some residents reported dirty water coming from their plumbing. According to IVS FEB RAS, an ash cloud at 1150 rose to 5-20 km altitude and was 400 km long and 250 km wide, extending W. A VONA issued at 1155 reported that ash had risen to 10 km and drifted 340 km NNW and 240 km WSW. According to Simon Carn (Michigan Technological University), about 0.2 Tg of sulfur dioxide in the plume was measured in a satellite image from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite acquired at 1343 that covered an area of about 189,000 km2 (figure 97). Satellite data at 1748 showed an ash plume that rose to 8 km altitude and drifted 430 km WSW and S, according to a VONA.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 96. Photo of ash deposited in Klyuchi village on 11 April 2023 by the eruption of Sheveluch. About 8.5 cm of ash was measured. Courtesy of Kam 24 News Agency.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 97. A strong sulfur dioxide plume from the 11 April 2023 eruption at Sheveluch was visible in satellite data from the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite. Courtesy of Simon Carn, MTU.

Activity during 12-15 April 2023. On 12 April at 0730 satellite images showed ash plumes rose to 7-8 km altitude and extended 600 km SW, 1,050 km ESE, and 1,300-3,000 km E. By 1710 that day, the explosions weakened. According to news sources, the ash-and-gas plumes drifted E toward the Aleutian Islands and reached the Gulf of Alaska by 13 April, causing flight disruptions. More than 100 flights involving Alaska airspace were cancelled due to the plume. Satellite data showed ash plumes rising to 4-5.5 km altitude and drifted 400-415 km SE and ESE on 13 April. KVS volcanologists observed the pyroclastic flow deposits and noted that steam rose from downed, smoldering trees. They also noted that the deposits were thin with very few large fragments, which differed from previous flows. The ash clouds traveled across the Pacific Ocean. Flight cancellations were also reported in NW Canada (British Columbia) during 13-14 April. During 14-15 April ash plumes rose to 6 km altitude and drifted 700 km NW.

Alaskan flight schedules were mostly back to normal by 15 April, with only minor delays and far less cancellations; a few cancellations continued to be reported in Canada. Clear weather on 15 April showed that most of the previous lava-dome complex was gone and a new crater roughly 1 km in diameter was observed (figure 98); gas-and-steam emissions were rising from this crater. Evidence suggested that there had been a directed blast to the SE, and pyroclastic flows traveled more than 20 km. An ash plume rose to 4.5-5.2 km altitude and drifted 93-870 km NW on 15 April.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 98. A comparison of the crater at Sheveluch showing the previous lava dome (top) taken on 29 November 2022 and a large crater in place of the dome (bottom) due to strong explosions during 10-13 April 2023, accompanied by gas-and-ash plumes. The bottom photo was taken on 15 April 2023. Photos has been color corrected. Both photos are courtesy of Yu. Demyanchuk, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Activity during 16-30 April 2023. Resuspended ash was lifted by the wind from the slopes and rose to 4 km altitude and drifted 224 km NW on 17 April. KVERT reported a plume of resuspended ash from the activity during 10-13 April on 19 April that rose to 3.5-4 km altitude and drifted 146-204 km WNW. During 21-22 April a plume stretched over the Scandinavian Peninsula. A gas-and-steam plume containing some ash rose to 3-3.5 km altitude and drifted 60 km SE on 30 April. A possible new lava dome was visible on the W slope of the volcano on 29-30 April (figure 99); satellite data showed two thermal anomalies, a bright one over the existing lava dome and a weaker one over the possible new one.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 99. Photo showing new lava dome growth at Sheveluch after a previous explosion destroyed much of the complex, accompanied by a white gas-and-steam plume. Photo has been color corrected. Courtesy of Yu. Demyanchuk, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

References. Girina, O., Loupian, E., Horvath, A., Melnikov, D., Manevich, A., Nuzhdaev, A., Bril, A., Ozerov, A., Kramareva, L., Sorokin, A., 2023, Analysis of the development of the paroxysmal eruption of Sheveluch volcano on April 10–13, 2023, based on data from various satellite systems, ??????????? ???????? ??? ?? ???????, 20(2).

Geologic Background. The high, isolated massif of Sheveluch volcano (also spelled Shiveluch) rises above the lowlands NNE of the Kliuchevskaya volcano group. The 1,300 km3 andesitic volcano is one of Kamchatka's largest and most active volcanic structures, with at least 60 large eruptions during the Holocene. The summit of roughly 65,000-year-old Stary Shiveluch is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide late-Pleistocene caldera breached to the south. Many lava domes occur on its outer flanks. The Molodoy Shiveluch lava dome complex was constructed during the Holocene within the large open caldera; Holocene lava dome extrusion also took place on the flanks of Stary Shiveluch. Widespread tephra layers from these eruptions have provided valuable time markers for dating volcanic events in Kamchatka. Frequent collapses of dome complexes, most recently in 1964, have produced debris avalanches whose deposits cover much of the floor of the breached caldera.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS), 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/eng/); Kamchatka Volcanological Station, Kamchatka Branch of Geophysical Survey, (KB GS RAS), Klyuchi, Kamchatka Krai, Russia (URL: http://volkstat.ru/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/); Kam 24 News Agency, 683032, Kamchatka Territory, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Vysotnaya St., 2A (URL: https://kam24.ru/news/main/20230411/96657.html#.Cj5Jrky6.dpuf); Simon Carn, Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931, USA (URL: http://www.volcarno.com/, Twitter: @simoncarn).


Bezymianny (Russia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Bezymianny

Russia

55.972°N, 160.595°E; summit elev. 2882 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Explosions, ash plumes, lava flows, and avalanches during November 2022-April 2023

Bezymianny is located on the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia as part of the Klyuchevskoy volcano group. Historic eruptions began in 1955 and have been characterized by dome growth, explosions, pyroclastic flows, ash plumes, and ashfall. During the 1955-56 eruption a large open crater was formed by collapse of the summit and an associated lateral blast. Subsequent episodic but ongoing lava-dome growth, accompanied by intermittent explosive activity and pyroclastic flows, has largely filled the 1956 crater. The current eruption period began in December 2016 and more recent activity has consisted of strong explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers activity during November 2022 through April 2023, based on weekly and daily reports from the Kamchatka Volcano Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

Activity during November and March 2023 was relatively low and mostly consisted of gas-and-steam emissions, occasional small collapses that generated avalanches along the lava dome slopes, and a persistent thermal anomaly over the volcano that was observed in satellite data on clear weather days. According to the Tokyo VAAC and KVERT, an explosion produced an ash plume that rose to 6 km altitude and drifted 25 km NE at 1825 on 29 March.

Gas-and-steam emissions, collapses generating avalanches, and thermal activity continued during April. According to two Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) issued on 2 and 6 April (local time) ash plumes rose to 3 km and 3.5-3.8 km altitude and drifted 35 km E and 140 km E, respectively. Satellite data from KVERT showed weak ash plumes extending up to 550 km E on 2 and 5-6 April.

A VONA issued at 0843 on 7 April described an ash plume that rose to 4.5-5 km altitude and drifted 250 km ESE. Later that day at 1326 satellite data showed an ash plume that rose to 5.5-6 km altitude and drifted 150 km ESE. A satellite image from 1600 showed an ash plume extending as far as 230 km ESE; KVERT noted that ash emissions were intensifying, likely due to avalanches from the growing lava dome. The Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Red (the highest level on a four-color scale). At 1520 satellite data showed an ash plume rising to 5-5.5 km altitude and drifting 230 km ESE. That same day, Kamchatka Volcanological Station (KVS) volcanologists traveled to Ambon to collect ash; they reported that a notable eruption began at 1730, and within 20 minutes a large ash plume rose to 10 km altitude and drifted NW. KVERT reported that the strong explosive phase began at 1738. Video and satellite data taken at 1738 showed an ash plume that rose to 10-12 km altitude and drifted up to 2,800 km SE and E. Explosions were clearly audible 20 km away for 90 minutes, according to KVS. Significant amounts of ash fell at the Apakhonchich station, which turned the snow gray; ash continued to fall until the morning of 8 April. In a VONA issued at 0906 on 8 April, KVERT stated that the explosive eruption had ended; ash plumes had drifted 2,000 km E. The ACC was lowered to Orange (the third highest level on a four-color scale). The KVS team saw a lava flow on the active dome once the conditions were clear that same day (figure 53). On 20 April lava dome extrusion was reported; lava flows were noted on the flanks of the dome, and according to KVERT satellite data, a thermal anomaly was observed in the area. The ACC was lowered to Yellow (the second lowest on a four-color scale).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 53. Photo showing an active lava flow descending the SE flank of Bezymianny from the lava dome on 8 April 2023. Courtesy of Yu. Demyanchuk, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Satellite data showed an increase in thermal activity beginning in early April 2023. A total of 31 thermal hotspots were detected by the MODVOLC thermal algorithm on 4, 5, 7, and 12 April 2023. The elevated thermal activity resulted from an increase in explosive activity and the start of an active lava flow. The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) volcano hotspot detection system based on the analysis of MODIS data also showed a pulse in thermal activity during the same time (figure 54). Infrared satellite imagery captured a continuous thermal anomaly at the summit crater, often accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions (figure 55). On 4 April 2023 an active lava flow was observed descending the SE flank.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 54. Intermittent and low-power thermal anomalies were detected at Bezymianny during December 2022 through mid-March 2023, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). In early April 2023, an increase in explosive activity and eruption of a lava flow resulted in a marked increase in thermal activity. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 55. Infrared satellite images of Bezymianny showed a persistent thermal anomaly over the lava dome on 18 November 2022 (top left), 28 December 2022 (top right), 15 March 2023 (bottom left), and 4 April 2023 (bottom right), often accompanied by white gas-and-steam plumes. On 4 April a lava flow was active and descending the SE flank. Images using infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The modern Bezymianny, much smaller than its massive neighbors Kamen and Kliuchevskoi on the Kamchatka Peninsula, was formed about 4,700 years ago over a late-Pleistocene lava-dome complex and an edifice built about 11,000-7,000 years ago. Three periods of intensified activity have occurred during the past 3,000 years. The latest period, which was preceded by a 1,000-year quiescence, began with the dramatic 1955-56 eruption. This eruption, similar to that of St. Helens in 1980, produced a large open crater that was formed by collapse of the summit and an associated lateral blast. Subsequent episodic but ongoing lava-dome growth, accompanied by intermittent explosive activity and pyroclastic flows, has largely filled the 1956 crater.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Kamchatka Volcanological Station, Kamchatka Branch of Geophysical Survey, (KB GS RAS), Klyuchi, Kamchatka Krai, Russia (URL: http://volkstat.ru/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Chikurachki (Russia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Chikurachki

Russia

50.324°N, 155.461°E; summit elev. 1781 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


New explosive eruption during late January-early February 2023

Chikurachki, located on Paramushir Island in the northern Kuriles, has had Plinian eruptions during the Holocene. Lava flows have reached the sea and formed capes on the NW coast; several young lava flows are also present on the E flank beneath a scoria deposit. Reported eruptions date back to 1690, with the most recent eruption period occurring during January through October 2022, characterized by occasional explosions, ash plumes, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:11). This report covers a new eruptive period during January through February 2023 that consisted of ash explosions and ash plumes, based on information from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

According to reports from KVERT, an explosive eruption began around 0630 on 29 January. Explosions generated ash plumes that rose to 3-3.5 km altitude and drifted 6-75 km SE and E, based on satellite data. As a result, the Aviation Color Code (ACC) was raised to Orange (the second highest level on a four-color scale). At 1406 and 1720 ash plumes were identified in satellite images that rose to 4.3 km altitude and extended 70 km E. By 2320 the ash plume had dissipated. A thermal anomaly was visible at the volcano on 31 January, according to a satellite image, and an ash plume was observed drifting 66 km NE.

Occasional explosions and ash plumes continued during early February. At 0850 on 1 February an ash plume rose to 3.5 km altitude and drifted 35 km NE. Satellite data showed an ash plume that rose to 3.2-3.5 km altitude and drifted 50 km NE at 1222 later that day (figure 22). A thermal anomaly was detected over the volcano during 5-6 February and ash plumes drifted as far as 125 km SE, E, and NE. Explosive events were reported at 0330 on 6 February that produced ash plumes rising to 4-4.5 km altitude and drifting 72-90 km N, NE, and ENE. KVERT noted that the last gas-and steam plume that contained some ash was observed on 8 February and drifted 55 km NE before the explosive eruption ended. The ACC was lowered to Yellow and then Green (the lowest level on a four-color scale) on 18 February.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 22. Satellite image showing a true color view of a strong ash plume rising above Chikurachki on 1 February 2023. The plume drifted NE and ash deposits (dark brown-to-gray) are visible on the NE flank due to explosive activity. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. Chikurachki, the highest volcano on Paramushir Island in the northern Kuriles, is a relatively small cone constructed on a high Pleistocene edifice. Oxidized basaltic-to-andesitic scoria deposits covering the upper part of the young cone give it a distinctive red color. Frequent basaltic Plinian eruptions have occurred during the Holocene. Lava flows have reached the sea and formed capes on the NW coast; several young lava flows are also present on the E flank beneath a scoria deposit. The Tatarinov group of six volcanic centers is located immediately to the south, and the Lomonosov cinder cone group, the source of an early Holocene lava flow that reached the saddle between it and Fuss Peak to the west, lies at the southern end of the N-S-trending Chikurachki-Tatarinov complex. In contrast to the frequently active Chikurachki, the Tatarinov centers are extensively modified by erosion and have a more complex structure. Tephrochronology gives evidence of an eruption around 1690 CE from Tatarinov, although its southern cone contains a sulfur-encrusted crater with fumaroles that were active along the margin of a crater lake until 1959.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far East Division, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Marapi (Indonesia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Marapi

Indonesia

0.38°S, 100.474°E; summit elev. 2885 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


New explosive eruption with ash emissions during January-March 2023

Marapi in Sumatra, Indonesia, is a massive stratovolcano that rises 2 km above the Bukittinggi Plain in the Padang Highlands. A broad summit contains multiple partially overlapping summit craters constructed within the small 1.4-km-wide Bancah caldera and trending ENE-WSW, with volcanism migrating to the west. Since the end of the 18th century, more than 50 eruptions, typically characterized by small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been recorded. The previous eruption consisted of two explosions during April-May 2018, which caused ashfall to the SE (BGVN 43:06). This report covers a new eruption during January-March 2023, which included explosive events and ash emissions, as reported by Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM) and MAGMA Indonesia.

According to a press release issued by PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia on 26 December, primary volcanic activity at Marapi consisted of white gas-and-steam puffs that rose 500-100 m above the summit during April-December 2022. On 25 December 2022 there was an increase in the number of deep volcanic earthquakes and summit inflation. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 80-158 m above the summit on 5 January. An explosive eruption began at 0611 on 7 January 2023, which generated white gas-and-steam emissions and gray ash emissions mixed with ejecta that rose 300 m above the summit and drifted SE (figure 10). According to ground observations, white-to-gray ash clouds during 0944-1034 rose 200-250 m above the summit and drifted SE and around 1451 emissions rose 200 m above the summit. Seismic signals indicated that eruptive events also occurred at 1135, 1144, 1230, 1715, and 1821, but no ash emissions were visually observed. On 8 January white-and-gray emissions rose 150-250 m above the summit that drifted E and SE. Seismic signals indicated eruptive events at 0447, 1038, and 1145, but again no ash emissions were visually observed on 8 January. White-to-gray ash plumes continued to be observed on clear weather days during 9-15, 18-21, 25, and 29-30 January, rising 100-1,000 m above the summit and drifted generally NE, SE, N, and E, based on ground observations (figure 11).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 10. Webcam image of the start of the explosive eruption at Marapi at 0651 on 7 January 2023. White gas-and-steam emissions are visible to the left and gray ash emissions are visible on the right, drifting SE. Distinct ejecta was also visible mixed within the ash cloud. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 11. Webcam image showing thick, gray ash emissions rising 500 m above the summit of Marapi and drifting N and NE at 0953 on 11 January 2023. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

White-and-gray and brown emissions persisted in February, rising 50-500 m above the summit and drifting E, S, SW, N, NE, and W, though weather sometimes prevented clear views of the summit. An eruption at 1827 on 10 February produced a black ash plume that rose 400 m above the summit and drifted NE and E (figure 12). Similar activity was reported on clear weather days, with white gas-and-steam emissions rising 50 m above the summit on 9, 11-12, 20, and 27 March and drifted E, SE, SW, NE, E, and N. On 17 March white-and-gray emissions rose 400 m above the summit and drifted N and E.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 12. Webcam image showing an eruptive event at 1829 on 10 February 2023 with an ash plume rising 400 m above the summit and drifting NE and E. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Geologic Background. Gunung Marapi, not to be confused with the better-known Merapi volcano on Java, is Sumatra's most active volcano. This massive complex stratovolcano rises 2,000 m above the Bukittinggi Plain in the Padang Highlands. A broad summit contains multiple partially overlapping summit craters constructed within the small 1.4-km-wide Bancah caldera. The summit craters are located along an ENE-WSW line, with volcanism migrating to the west. More than 50 eruptions, typically consisting of small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been recorded since the end of the 18th century; no lava flows outside the summit craters have been reported in historical time.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1).


Kikai (Japan) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Kikai

Japan

30.793°N, 130.305°E; summit elev. 704 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023

Kikai, located just S of the Ryukyu islands of Japan, contains a 19-km-wide mostly submarine caldera. The island of Satsuma Iwo Jima (also known as Satsuma-Iwo Jima and Tokara Iojima) is located at the NW caldera rim, as well as the island’s highest peak, Iodake. Its previous eruption period occurred on 6 October 2020 and was characterized by an explosion and thermal anomalies in the crater (BGVN 45:11). More recent activity has consisted of intermittent thermal activity and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 46:06). This report covers similar low-level activity including white gas-and-steam plumes, nighttime incandescence, seismicity, and discolored water during May 2021 through April 2023, using information from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and various satellite data. During this time, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a 5-level scale), according to JMA.

Activity was relatively low throughout the reporting period and has consisted of intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 200-1,400 m above the Iodake crater and nighttime incandescence was observed at the Iodake crater using a high-sensitivity surveillance camera. Each month, frequent volcanic earthquakes were detected, and sulfur dioxide masses were measured by the University of Tokyo Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Mishima Village, and JMA (table 6).

Table 6. Summary of gas-and-steam plume heights, number of volcanic earthquakes detected, and amount of sulfur dioxide emissions in tons per day (t/d). Courtesy of JMA monthly reports.

Month Max plume height (m) Volcanic earthquakes Sulfur dioxide emissions (t/d)
May 2021 400 162 900-1,300
Jun 2021 800 117 500
Jul 2021 1,400 324 800-1,500
Aug 2021 1,000 235 700-1,000
Sep 2021 800 194 500-1,100
Oct 2021 800 223 600-800
Nov 2021 900 200 400-900
Dec 2021 1,000 161 500-1,800
Jan 2022 1,000 164 600-1,100
Feb 2022 1,000 146 500-1,600
Mar 2022 1,200 171 500-1,200
Apr 2022 1,000 144 600-1,000
May 2022 1,200 126 300-500
Jun 2022 1,000 154 400
Jul 2022 1,300 153 600-1,100
Aug 2022 1,100 109 600-1,500
Sep 2022 1,000 170 900
Oct 2022 800 249 700-1,200
Nov 2022 800 198 800-1,200
Dec 2022 700 116 600-1,500
Jan 2023 800 146 500-1,400
Feb 2023 800 135 600-800
Mar 2023 1,100 94 500-600
Apr 2023 800 82 500-700

Sentinel-2 satellite images show weak thermal anomalies at the Iodake crater on clear weather days, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions and occasional discolored water (figure 24). On 17 January 2022 JMA conducted an aerial overflight in cooperation with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force’s 1st Air Group, which confirmed a white gas-and-steam plume rising from the Iodake crater (figure 25). They also observed plumes from fumaroles rising from around the crater and on the E, SW, and N slopes. In addition, discolored water was reported near the coast around Iodake, which JMA stated was likely related to volcanic activity (figure 25). Similarly, an overflight taken on 11 January 2023 showed white gas-and-steam emissions rising from the Iodake crater, as well as discolored water that spread E from the coast around the island. On 14 February 2023 white fumaroles and discolored water were also captured during an overflight (figure 26).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 24. Sentinel-2 satellite images of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing sets of visual (true color) and infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a) views on 7 December 2021 (top), 23 October 2022 (middle), and 11 January 2023 (bottom). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 25. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing a white gas-and-steam plume rising above the Iodake crater at 1119 on 17 January 2022. There was also green-yellow discolored water surrounding the coast of Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JMSDF via JMA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 26. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing white gas-and-steam plumes rising above the Iodake crater on 14 February 2023. Green-yellow discolored water surrounded Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JCG.

Geologic Background. Multiple eruption centers have exhibited recent activity at Kikai, a mostly submerged, 19-km-wide caldera near the northern end of the Ryukyu Islands south of Kyushu. It was the source of one of the world's largest Holocene eruptions about 6,300 years ago when rhyolitic pyroclastic flows traveled across the sea for a total distance of 100 km to southern Kyushu, and ashfall reached the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. The eruption devastated southern and central Kyushu, which remained uninhabited for several centuries. Post-caldera eruptions formed Iodake (or Iwo-dake) lava dome and Inamuradake scoria cone, as well as submarine lava domes. Recorded eruptions have occurred at or near Satsuma-Iojima (also known as Tokara-Iojima), a small 3 x 6 km island forming part of the NW caldera rim. Showa-Iojima lava dome (also known as Iojima-Shinto), a small island 2 km E of Satsuma-Iojima, was formed during submarine eruptions in 1934 and 1935. Mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions have occurred during the past few decades from Iodake, a rhyolitic lava dome at the eastern end of Satsuma-Iojima.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Japan Coast Guard (JCG) Volcano Database, Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department, 3-1-1, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8932, Japan (URL: https://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/kaiikiDB/kaiyo30-2.htm); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Lewotolok (Indonesia) — May 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Lewotolok

Indonesia

8.274°S, 123.508°E; summit elev. 1431 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Strombolian eruption continues through April 2023 with intermittent ash plumes

The current eruption at Lewotolok, in Indonesian’s Lesser Sunda Islands, began in late November 2020 and has included Strombolian explosions, occasional ash plumes, incandescent ejecta, intermittent thermal anomalies, and persistent white and white-and-gray emissions (BGVN 47:10). Similar activity continued during October 2022-April 2023, as described in this report based on information provided by Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as CVGHM, or the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation), MAGMA Indonesia, the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), and satellite data.

During most days in October 2022 white and white-gray emissions rose as high as 200-600 m above the summit. Webcam images often showed incandescence above the crater rim. At 0351 on 14 October, an explosion produced a dense ash plume that rose about 1.2 km above the summit and drifted SW (figure 43). After this event, activity subsided and remained low through the rest of the year, but with almost daily white emissions.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 43. Webcam image of Lewotolok on 14 October 2022 showing a dense ash plume and incandescence above the crater. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

After more than two months of relative quiet, PVMBG reported that explosions at 0747 on 14 January 2023 and at 2055 on 16 January produced white-and-gray ash plumes that rose around 400 m above the summit and drifted E and SE (figure 44). During the latter half of January through April, almost daily white or white-and-gray emissions were observed rising 25-800 m above the summit, and nighttime webcam images often showed incandescent material being ejected above the summit crater. Strombolian activity was visible in webcam images at 2140 on 11 February, 0210 on 18 February, and during 22-28 March. Frequent hotspots were recorded by the MIROVA detection system starting in approximately the second week of March 2023 that progressively increased into April (figure 45).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 44. Webcam image of an explosion at Lewotolok on 14 January 2023 ejecting a small ash plume along with white emissions. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 45. MIROVA Log Radiative Power graph of thermal anomalies detected by the VIIRS satellite instrument at Lewotolok’s summit crater for the year beginning 24 July 2022. Clusters of mostly low-power hotspots occurred during August-October 2022, followed by a gap of more than four months before persistent and progressively stronger anomalies began in early March 2023. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Explosions that produced dense ash plumes as high as 750 m above the summit were described in Volcano Observatory Notices for Aviation (VONA) at 0517, 1623, and 2016 on 22 March, at 1744 on 24 March, at 0103 on 26 March, at 0845 and 1604 on 27 March (figure 46), and at 0538 on 28 March. According to the Darwin VAAC, on 6 April another ash plume rose to 1.8 km altitude (about 370 m above the summit) and drifted N.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 46. Webcam image of Lewotolok at 0847 on 27 March 2023 showing a dense ash plume from an explosion along with clouds and white emissions. Courtesy of MAGMA-Indonesia.

Sentinel-2 images over the previous year recorded thermal anomalies as well as the development of a lava flow that descended the NE flank beginning in June 2022 (figure 47). The volcano was often obscured by weather clouds, which also often hampered ground observations. Ash emissions were reported in March 2022 (BGVN 47:10), and clear imagery from 4 March 2022 showed recent lava flows confined to the crater, two thermal anomaly spots in the eastern part of the crater, and mainly white emissions from the SE. Thermal anomalies became stronger and more frequent in mid-May 2022, followed by strong Strombolian activity through June and July (BGVN 47:10); Sentinel-2 images on 2 June 2022 showed active lava flows within the crater and overflowing onto the NE flank. Clear images from 23 April 2023 (figure 47) show the extent of the cooled NE-flank lava flow, more extensive intra-crater flows, and two hotspots in slightly different locations compared to the previous March.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 47. Sentinel-2 satellite images of Lewotolok showing sets of visual (true color) and infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a) views on 4 March 2022, 2 June 2022, and 23 April 2023. Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Geologic Background. The Lewotolok (or Lewotolo) stratovolcano occupies the eastern end of an elongated peninsula extending north into the Flores Sea, connected to Lembata (formerly Lomblen) Island by a narrow isthmus. It is symmetrical when viewed from the north and east. A small cone with a 130-m-wide crater constructed at the SE side of a larger crater forms the volcano's high point. Many lava flows have reached the coastline. Eruptions recorded since 1660 have consisted of explosive activity from the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.esdm.go.id/v1); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).


Barren Island (India) — April 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Barren Island

India

12.278°N, 93.858°E; summit elev. 354 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Thermal activity during December 2022-March 2023

Barren Island is part of a N-S-trending volcanic arc extending between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar). The caldera, which is open to the sea on the west, was created during a major explosive eruption in the late Pleistocene that produced pyroclastic flow and surge deposits. Eruptions dating back to 1787, have changed the morphology of the pyroclastic cone in the center of the caldera, and lava flows that fill much of the caldera floor have reached the sea along the western coast. Previous activity was detected during mid-May 2022, consisting of intermittent thermal activity. This report covers June 2022 through March 2023, which included strong thermal activity beginning in late December 2022, based on various satellite data.

Activity was relatively quiet during June through late December 2022 and mostly consisted of low-power thermal anomalies, based on the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph. During late December, a spike in both power and frequency of thermal anomalies was detected (figure 58). There was another pulse in thermal activity in mid-March, which consisted of more frequent and relatively strong anomalies.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 58. Occasional thermal anomalies were detected during June through late December 2022 at Barren Island, but by late December through early January 2023, there was a marked increase in thermal activity, both in power and frequency, according to this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). After this spike in activity, anomalies occurred at a more frequent rate. In late March, another pulse in activity was detected, although the power was not as strong as that initial spike during December-January. Courtesy of MIROVA.

The Suomi NPP/VIIRS sensor data showed five thermal alerts on 29 December 2022. The number of alerts increased to 19 on 30 December. According to the Darwin VAAC, ash plumes identified in satellite images captured at 2340 on 30 December and at 0050 on 31 December rose to 1.5 km altitude and drifted SW. The ash emissions dissipated by 0940. On 31 December, a large thermal anomaly was detected; based on a Sentinel-2 infrared satellite image, the anomaly was relatively strong and extended to the N (figure 59).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 59. Thermal anomalies of varying intensities were visible in the crater of Barren Island on 31 December 2022 (top left), 15 January 2023 (top right), 24 February 2023 (bottom left), and 31 March 2023 (bottom right), as seen in these Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images. The anomalies on 31 December and 31 March were notably strong and extended to the N and N-S, respectively. Images using “Atmospheric penetration” rendering (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Thermal activity continued during January through March. Sentinel-2 infrared satellite data showed some thermal anomalies of varying intensity on clear weather days on 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 January 2023, 9, 14, 19, and 24 February 2023, and 21, 26, and 31 March (figure 59). According to Suomi NPP/VIIRS sensor data, a total of 30 thermal anomalies were detected over 18 days on 2-3, 7, 9-14, 16-17, 20, 23, 25, and 28-31 January. The sensor data showed a total of six hotspots detected over six days on 1, 4-5, and 10-12 February. During March, a total of 33 hotspots were visible over 11 days on 20-31 March. Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued on 25, 27, and 29 March.

Geologic Background. Barren Island, a possession of India in the Andaman Sea about 135 km NE of Port Blair in the Andaman Islands, is the only historically active volcano along the N-S volcanic arc extending between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar). It is the emergent summit of a volcano that rises from a depth of about 2250 m. The small, uninhabited 3-km-wide island contains a roughly 2-km-wide caldera with walls 250-350 m high. The caldera, which is open to the sea on the west, was created during a major explosive eruption in the late Pleistocene that produced pyroclastic-flow and -surge deposits. Historical eruptions have changed the morphology of the pyroclastic cone in the center of the caldera, and lava flows that fill much of the caldera floor have reached the sea along the western coast.

Information Contacts: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground); NASA Worldview (URL: https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/).


Villarrica (Chile) — April 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Villarrica

Chile

39.42°S, 71.93°W; summit elev. 2847 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Nighttime crater incandescence, ash emissions, and seismicity during October 2022-March 2023

Villarrica, located in central Chile, consists of a 2-km-wide caldera that formed about 3,500 years ago, located at the base of the presently active cone. Historical eruptions date back to 1558 and have been characterized by mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusions. The current eruption period began in December 2014 and has recently consisted of ongoing seismicity, gas-and-steam emissions, and thermal activity (BGVN 47:10). This report covers activity during October 2022 through March 2023 and describes Strombolian explosions, ash emissions, and crater incandescence. Information for this report primarily comes from the Southern Andes Volcano Observatory (Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur, OVDAS), part of Chile's National Service of Geology and Mining (Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, SERNAGEOMIN) and satellite data.

Seismicity during October consisted of discrete long-period (LP)-type events, tremor (TR), and volcano-tectonic (VT)-type events. Webcam images showed eruption plumes rising as high as 460 m above the crater rim; plumes deposited tephra on the E, S, and SW flanks within 500 m of the crater on 2, 18, 23, and 31 October. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 80-300 m above the crater accompanied by crater incandescence during 2-3 October. There was a total of 5 VT-type events, 10,625 LP-type events, and 2,232 TR-type events detected throughout the month. Sulfur dioxide data was obtained by the Differential Absorption Optical Spectroscopy Equipment (DOAS) installed 6 km in an ESE direction. The average value of the sulfur dioxide emissions was 535 ± 115 tons per day (t/d); the highest daily maximum was 1,273 t/d on 13 October. These values were within normal levels and were lower compared to September. During the night of 3-4 October Strombolian activity ejected blocks as far as 40 m toward the NW flank. Small, gray-brown ash pulses rose 60 m above the crater accompanied white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 40-300 m high during 4-5 October. In addition, crater incandescence and Strombolian explosions that ejected blocks were reported during 4-5 and 9-11 October. Based on satellite images from 12 October, ballistic ejecta traveled as far as 400 m and the resulting ash was deposited 3.2 km to the E and SE and 900 m to the NW.

Satellite images from 14 October showed an active lava lake that covered an area of 36 square meters in the E part of the crater floor. There was also evidence of a partial collapse (less than 300 square meters) at the inner SSW crater rim. POVI posted an 18 October photo that showed incandescence above the crater rim, noting that crater incandescence was visible during clear weather nights. In addition, webcam images at 1917 showed lava fountaining and Strombolian explosions; tourists also described seeing splashes of lava ejected from a depth of 80 m and hearing loud degassing sounds. Tephra deposits were visible around the crater rim and on the upper flanks on 24 October. On 25 October SERNAGEOMIN reported that both the number and amplitude of LP earthquakes had increased, and continuous tremor also increased; intense crater incandescence was visible in satellite images. On 31 October Strombolian explosions intensified and ejected material onto the upper flanks.

Activity during November consisted of above-baseline seismicity, including intensifying continuous tremor and an increase in the number of LP earthquakes. On 1 November a lava fountain was visible rising above the crater rim. Nighttime crater incandescence was captured in webcam images on clear weather days. Strombolian explosions ejected incandescent material on the NW and SW flanks during 1, 2, and 6-7 November. POVI reported that the width of the lava fountains that rose above the crater rim on 2 November suggested that the vent on the crater floor was roughly 6 m in diameter. Based on reports from observers and analyses of satellite imagery, material that was deposited on the upper flanks, primarily to the NW, consisted of clasts up to 20 cm in diameter. During an overflight on 19 November SERNAGEOMIN scientists observed a cone on the crater floor with an incandescent vent at its center that contained a lava lake. Deposits of ejecta were also visible on the flanks. That same day a 75-minute-long series of volcano-tectonic earthquakes was detected at 1940; a total of 21 events occurred 7.8 km ESE of the crater. Another overflight on 25 November showed the small cone on the crater floor with an incandescent lava lake at the center; the temperature of the lava lake was 1,043 °C, based data gathered during the overflight.

Similar seismicity, crater incandescence, and gas-and-steam emissions continued during December. On 1 December incandescent material was ejected 80-220 m above the crater rim. During an overflight on 6 December, intense gas-and-steam emissions from the lava lake was reported, in addition to tephra deposits on the S and SE flanks as far as 500 m from the crater. During 7-12 December seismicity increased slightly and white, low-altitude gas-and-steam emissions and crater incandescence were occasionally visible. On 24 December at 0845 SERNAGEOMIN reported an increase in Strombolian activity; explosions ejected material that generally rose 100 m above the crater, although one explosion ejected incandescent tephra as far as 400 m from the crater onto the SW flank. According to POVI, 11 explosions ejected incandescent material that affected the upper SW flank between 2225 on 25 December to 0519 on 26 December. POVI recorded 21 Strombolian explosions that ejected incandescent material onto the upper SW flank from 2200 on 28 December to 0540 on 29 December. More than 100 Strombolian explosions ejected material onto the upper W and NW flanks during 30-31 December. On 30 December at 2250 an explosion was detected that generated an eruptive column rising 120 m above the crater and ejecting incandescent material 300 m on the NW flank (figure 120). Explosions detected at 2356 on 31 December ejected material 480 m from the crater rim onto the NW flank and at 0219 material was deposited on the same flank as far as 150 m. Both explosions ejected material as high as 120 m above the crater rim.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 120. Webcam image of a Strombolian explosion at Villarrica on 30 December 2022 (local time) that ejected incandescent material 300 m onto the NW flank, accompanied by emissions and crater incandescence. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN (Reporte Especial de Actividad Volcanica (REAV), Region De La Araucania y Los Rios, Volcan Villarrica, 30 de diciembre de 2022, 23:55 Hora local).

During January 2023, Strombolian explosions and lava fountaining continued mainly in the crater, ejecting material 100 m above the crater. Gas-and-steam emissions rose 40-260 m above the crater and drifted in different directions, and LP-type events continued. Emissions during the night of 11 January including some ash rose 80 m above the crater and as far as 250 m NE flank. POVI scientists reported about 70 lava fountaining events from 2130 on 14 January to 0600 on 15 January. At 2211 on 15 January there was an increase in frequency of Strombolian explosions that ejected incandescent material 60-150 m above the crater. Some ashfall was detected around the crater. POVI noted that on 19 January lava was ejected as high as 140 m above the crater rim and onto the W and SW flanks. Explosion noises were heard on 19 and 22 January in areas within a radius of 10 km. During 22-23 January Strombolian explosions ejected incandescent material 60-100 m above the crater that drifted SE. A seismic event at 1204 on 27 January was accompanied by an ash plume that rose 220 m above the crater and drifted E (figure 121); later that same day at 2102 an ash plume rose 180 m above the crater and drifted E.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 121. Webcam image of an ash plume at Villarrica on 27 January rising 220 m above the crater and drifting E. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN (Reporte Especial de Actividad Volcanica (REAV), Region De La Araucania y Los Rios, Volcan Villarrica, 27 de enero de 2023, 12:35 Hora local).

Seismicity, primarily characterized by LP-type events, and Strombolian explosions persisted during February and March. POVI reported that three explosions were heard during 1940-1942 on 6 February, and spatter was seen rising 30 m above the crater rim hours later. On 9 February lava fountains were visible rising 50 m above the crater rim. On 17 February Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater rim and onto the upper SW flank. Webcam images from 20 February showed two separate fountains of incandescent material, which suggested that a second vent had opened to the E of the first vent. Spatter was ejected as high as 80 m above the crater rim and onto the upper NE flank. A sequence of Strombolian explosions was visible from 2030 on 20 February to 0630 on 21 February. Material was ejected as high as 80 m above the crater rim and onto the upper E flank. LP-type earthquakes recorded 1056 and at 1301 on 27 February were associated with ash plumes that rose 300 m above the crater and drifted NE (figure 122). Crater incandescence above the crater rim was observed in webcam images on 13 March, which indicated Strombolian activity. POVI posted a webcam image from 2227 on 18 March showing Strombolian explosions that ejected material as high as 100 m above the crater rim. Explosions were heard up to 8 km away. On 19 March at 1921 an ash emission rose 340 m above the crater and drifted NE. On 21 and 26 March Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 and 110 m above the crater rim, respectively. On 21 March Strombolian explosions ejected material 100 m above the crater rim. Low-intensity nighttime crater incandescence was detected by surveillance cameras on 24 March.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 122. Photo of an ash plume rising 300 m above the crater of Villarrica and drifting NE on 27 February 2023. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN (Reporte Especial de Actividad Volcanica (REAV), Region De La Araucania y Los Rios, Volcan Villarrica, 27 de febrero de 2023, 11:10 Hora local).

Infrared MODIS satellite data processed by MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) detected an increase in thermal activity during mid-November, which corresponds to sustained Strombolian explosions, lava fountaining, and crater incandescence (figure 123). This activity was also consistently captured on clear weather days throughout the reporting period in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images (figure 124).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 123. Low-power thermal anomalies were detected during August through October 2022 at Villarrica, based on this MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power). During mid-November, the power and frequency of the anomalies increased and remained at a consistent level through March 2023. Thermal activity consisted of Strombolian explosions, lava fountains, and crater incandescence. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 124. Consistent bright thermal anomalies were visible at the summit crater of Villarrica in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images throughout the reporting period, as shown here on 19 December 2022 (left) and 9 February 2023 (right). Occasional gas-and-steam emissions also accompanied the thermal activity. Images use Atmospheric penetration rendering (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. The glacier-covered Villarrica stratovolcano, in the northern Lakes District of central Chile, is ~15 km south of the city of Pucon. A 2-km-wide caldera that formed about 3,500 years ago is located at the base of the presently active, dominantly basaltic to basaltic-andesite cone at the NW margin of a 6-km-wide Pleistocene caldera. More than 30 scoria cones and fissure vents are present on the flanks. Plinian eruptions and pyroclastic flows that have extended up to 20 km from the volcano were produced during the Holocene. Lava flows up to 18 km long have issued from summit and flank vents. Eruptions documented since 1558 CE have consisted largely of mild-to-moderate explosive activity with occasional lava effusion. Glaciers cover 40 km2 of the volcano, and lahars have damaged towns on its flanks.

Information Contacts: Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN), Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur (OVDAS), Avda Sta María No. 0104, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.sernageomin.cl/); Proyecto Observación Villarrica Internet (POVI) (URL: http://www.povi.cl/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).


Fuego (Guatemala) — April 2023 Citation iconCite this Report

Fuego

Guatemala

14.473°N, 90.88°W; summit elev. 3763 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Daily explosions, gas-and-ash plumes, avalanches, and ashfall during December 2022-March 2023

Fuego, one of three large stratovolcanoes overlooking the city of Antigua, Guatemala, has been vigorously erupting since January 2002, with recorded eruptions dating back to 1531 CE. Eruptive activity has included major ashfalls, pyroclastic flows, lava flows, and lahars. Frequent explosions with ash emissions, block avalanches, and lava flows have persisted since 2018. More recently, activity remained relatively consistent with daily explosions, ash plumes, ashfall, avalanches, and lahars (BGVN 48:03). This report covers similar activity during December 2022 through March 2023, based on information from the Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrologia (INSIVUMEH) daily reports, Coordinadora Nacional para la Reducción de Desastres (CONRED) newsletters, and various satellite data.

Daily explosions reported throughout December 2022-March 2023 generated ash plumes to 6 km altitude that drifted as far as 60 km in multiple directions. The explosions also caused rumbling sounds of varying intensities, with shock waves that vibrated the roofs and windows of homes near the volcano. Incandescent pulses of material rose 100-500 m above the crater, which caused block avalanches around the crater and toward the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá (SW), Ceniza (SSW), El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas (SE), Seca (W), and Trinidad (S) drainages. Fine ashfall was also frequently reported in nearby communities (table 27). MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed frequent, moderate thermal activity throughout the reporting period; however, there was a brief decline in both power and frequency during late-to-mid-January 2023 (figure 166). A total of 79 MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued: 16 during December 2022, 17 during January 2023, 23 during February, and 23 during March. Some of these thermal evets were also visible in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite imagery at the summit crater, which also showed occasional incandescent block avalanches descending the S, W, and NW flanks, and accompanying ash plumes that drifted W (figure 167).

Table 27. Activity at Fuego during December 2022 through March 2023 included multiple explosions every hour. Ash emissions rose as high as 6 km altitude and drifted generally W and SW as far as 60 km, causing ashfall in many communities around the volcano. Data from daily INSIVUMEH reports and CONRED newsletters.

Month Explosions per hour Ash plume altitude (max) Ash plume distance (km) and direction Drainages affected by block avalanches Communities reporting ashfall
Dec 2022 1-12 6 km WSW, W, SW, NW, S, SE, NE, and E, 10-30 km Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas, Seca, and Trinidad Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Finca Palo Verde, Yepocapa, Yucales, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceilán, San Andrés Osuna, and Aldea La Cruz
Jan 2023 1-12 5 km W, SW, NW, S, N, NE, E, and SE, 7-60 km Ceniza, Las Lajas, Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Trinidad, Seca, Honda, and El Jute Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Palo Verde, Yucales, Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceylon, Alotenango, and San Andrés Osuna
Feb 2023 1-12 4.9 km SW, W, NW, and N, 10-30 km Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, Las Lajas, Seca, Trinidad, El Jute, and Honda Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, Palo Verde, San Pedro Yepocapa, El Porvenir, Sangre de Cristo, La Soledad, Acatenango, El Campamento, and La Asunción
Mar 2023 3-11 5 km W, SW, NW, NE, N, S, SE, and E, 10-30 km Seca, Ceniza, Taniluyá, Las Lajas, Honda, Trinidad, El Jute, and Santa Teresa Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, La Asunción, Palo Verde, La Rochela, San Andrés Osuna, Ceilán, and Aldeas
Figure (see Caption) Figure 166. Thermal activity at Fuego shown in the MIROVA graph (Log Radiative Power) was at moderate levels during a majority of December 2022 through March 2023, with a brief decline in both power and frequency during late-to-mid-January 2023. Courtesy of MIROVA.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 167. Frequent incandescent block avalanches descended multiple drainages at Fuego during December 2022 through March 2023, as shown in these Sentinel-2 infrared satellite images on 10 December 2022 (top left), 4 January 2023 (top right), 18 February 2023 (bottom left), and 30 March 2023 (bottom right). Gray ash plumes were also occasionally visible rising above the summit crater and drifting W, as seen on 4 January and 30 March. Avalanches affected the NW and S flanks on 10 December, the SW and W flanks on 18 February, and the NW, W, and SW flanks on 30 March. Images use Atmospheric penetration rendering (bands 12, 11, 8a). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Daily explosions ranged between 1 and 12 per hour during December 2022, generating ash plumes that rose to 4.5-6 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km in multiple directions. These explosions created rumbling sounds with a shock wave that vibrated the roofs and windows of homes near the volcano. Frequent white gas-and-steam plumes rose to 4.6 km altitude. Strombolian activity resulted in incandescent pulses that generally rose 100-500 m above the crater, which generated weak-to-moderate avalanches around the crater and toward the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, El Jute, Honda, Las Lajas, Seca, and Trinidad drainages, where material sometimes reached vegetation. Fine ashfall was recorded in Panimaché I and II (8 km SW), Morelia (9 km SW), Santa Sofía (12 km SW), El Porvenir (8 km ENE), Finca Palo Verde, Yepocapa (8 km NW), Yucales (12 km SW), Sangre de Cristo (8 km WSW), La Rochela, Ceilán, San Andrés Osuna, and Aldea La Cruz. INSIVUMEH reported that on 10 December a lava flow formed in the Ceniza drainage and measured 800 m long; it remained active at least through 12 December and block avalanches were reported at the front of the flow. A pyroclastic flow was reported at 1100 on 10 December, descending the Las Lajas drainage for several kilometers and reaching the base of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows were also observed in the Ceniza drainage for several kilometers, reaching the base of the volcano on 11 December. Ash plumes rose as high as 6 km altitude, according to a special bulletin from INSIVUMEH. On 31 December explosions produced incandescent pulses that rose 300 m above the crater, which covered the upper part of the cone.

Activity during January 2023 consisted of 1-12 daily explosions, which produced ash plumes that rose to 4.2-5 km altitude and drifted 7-60 km in multiple directions (figure 168). Incandescent pulses of material were observed 100-350 m above the crater, which generated avalanches around the crater and down the Ceniza, Las Lajas, Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Trinidad, Seca, Honda, and El Jute drainages. Sometimes, the avalanches resuspended older fine material 100-500 m above the surface that drifted W and SW. Ashfall was recorded in Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, Palo Verde, Yucales, Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, La Rochela, Ceylon, Alotenango, and San Andrés Osuna. Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes rose to 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and NW.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 168. Webcam image showing an ash plume rising above Fuego on 15 January 2023. Courtesy of INSIVUMEH.

There were 1-12 daily explosions recorded through February, which generated ash plumes that rose to 4.2-4.9 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km SW, W, NW, and N. Intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions rose 4.5 km altitude and drifted W and SW. During the nights and early mornings, incandescent pulses were observed 100-400 m above the crater. Weak-to-moderate avalanches were also observed down the Santa Teresa, Taniluyá, Ceniza, Las Lajas, Seca, Trinidad, El Jute, and Honda drainages, sometimes reaching the edge of vegetated areas. Occasional ashfall was reported in Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, Palo Verde, San Pedro Yepocapa, El Porvenir, Sangre de Cristo, La Soledad, Acatenango, El Campamento, and La Asunción. On 18 February strong winds resuspended previous ash deposits as high as 1 km above the surface that blew 12 km SW and S.

During March, daily explosions ranged from 3-11 per hour, producing ash plumes that rose to 4-5 km altitude and drifted 10-30 km W, SW, NW, NE, N, S, SE, and E. During the night and early morning, crater incandescence (figure 169) and incandescent pulses of material were observed 50-400 m above the crater. Weak-to-moderate avalanches affected the Seca, Ceniza, Taniluyá, Las Lajas, Honda, Trinidad, El Jute, and Santa Teresa drainages, sometimes reaching the edge of vegetation. Frequent ashfall was detected in Yepocapa, Sangre de Cristo, Panimaché I and II, Morelia, Santa Sofía, El Porvenir, La Asunción, Palo Verde, La Rochela, San Andrés Osuna, Ceilán, and Aldeas. Weak ashfall was recorded in San Andrés Osuna, La Rochela, Ceylon during 8-9 March. A lahar was reported in the Ceniza drainage on 15 March, carrying fine, hot volcanic material, tree branches, trunks, and blocks from 30 cm to 1.5 m in diameter. On 18 March lahars were observed in the Las Lajas and El Jute drainages, carrying fine volcanic material, tree branches and trunks, and blocks from 30 cm to 1.5 m in diameter. As a result, there was also damage to the road infrastructure between El Rodeo and El Zapote.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 169. Sentinel-2 infrared satellite image showing Fuego’s crater incandescence accompanied by a gas-and-ash plume that drifted SW on 25 March 2023. Images use bands 12, 11, 5. Courtesy of INSIVUMEH.

Geologic Background. Volcán Fuego, one of Central America's most active volcanoes, is also one of three large stratovolcanoes overlooking Guatemala's former capital, Antigua. The scarp of an older edifice, Meseta, lies between Fuego and Acatenango to the north. Construction of Meseta dates back to about 230,000 years and continued until the late Pleistocene or early Holocene. Collapse of Meseta may have produced the massive Escuintla debris-avalanche deposit, which extends about 50 km onto the Pacific coastal plain. Growth of the modern Fuego volcano followed, continuing the southward migration of volcanism that began at the mostly andesitic Acatenango. Eruptions at Fuego have become more mafic with time, and most historical activity has produced basaltic rocks. Frequent vigorous historical eruptions have been recorded since the onset of the Spanish era in 1524, and have produced major ashfalls, along with occasional pyroclastic flows and lava flows.

Information Contacts: Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia e Hydrologia (INSIVUMEH), Unit of Volcanology, Geologic Department of Investigation and Services, 7a Av. 14-57, Zona 13, Guatemala City, Guatemala (URL: http://www.insivumeh.gob.gt/ ); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

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Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network - Volume 36, Number 04 (April 2011)

Managing Editor: Richard Wunderman

Arenal (Costa Rica)

Activity and seismicity decrease; new analysis of acid-rain

Endeavour Segment (Canada)

Acoustic imaging of ongoing hydrothermal venting

Eyjafjallajokull (Iceland)

Eruption ended in late June 2010; sample of growing literature on the eruption

Irazu (Costa Rica)

Crater lake dries and regional acid-rain report

Machin (Colombia)

Seismic and non-eruptive unrest detected in 2004, 2008, 2009, and again in 2010

Poas (Costa Rica)

Photos of phreatic eruptions from acid lake; surrounding vegetation damaged by gases

Ranau (Indonesia)

Fish kill in April 2011 strikes hot-spring areas of intra-caldera lake

Rincon de la Vieja (Costa Rica)

Fumarolically active but non-eruptive through January 2011

Sheveluch (Russia)

Ongoing dome growth into early 2011; and pyroclastic flows of 27 October 2010



Arenal (Costa Rica) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Arenal

Costa Rica

10.463°N, 84.703°W; summit elev. 1670 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Activity and seismicity decrease; new analysis of acid-rain

Our previous report about Arenal discussed ongoing sporadic eruptive behavior, preliminary information about the 24 May 2010 dome collapse, and the higher frequency of rockfalls through September 2010 (BGVN 35:07). Since October 2010, volcanic activity at Arenal appears to be decreasing. Events like the explosion on 24 July 2010, discussed below (see figure 110) have become rare. Reports from Costa Rica's Volcanological and Seismological Observatory and National University (OVSICORI-UNA) include direct observations of summit activity, seismic analysis, and acid-rain data and provide the basis for this report covering the 24 May, 2010 event in addition to activity from October 2010 to May 2011.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 110. At 0538 on 24 July 2010 (local time) an ash explosion at Arenal was recorded seismically and its resulting cloud was photographed. In the lower left-hand corner is the seismic trace of the event, which began suddenly and saturated the record (seismic station VACR; OVSICORI-UNA). Courtesy of Phil Slosberg (OVSICORI-UNA).

Incandescent avalanche of 24 May 2010. Sudden activity down Arenal's SW flank on 24 May 2010 produced long, incandescent avalanches and pyroclastic flows, forcing the National Park to evacuate visitors on this day. No injuries or damage to infrastructure had been reported during Arenal's activity in May 2010. Previous pyroclastic events had also caused evacuations in June 2009, June 2008, and September 2007.

Beginning at noon on 24 May, incandescent avalanches descended from the summit dome. They affected a sector that has been subject to avalanches in the last 3 years (see figure 111). A field investigation by OVSICORI on 31 May found that material fell from the summit down to 1,200 m elevation and accumulating in a toe 400 m x 80 m. The majority of blocks surpassed 2 m in diameter. Deposits from the dome collapse were still hot when they arrived at the forest that borders Río Agua Caliente. The OVSICORI-UNA field report of 31 May 2010 contains photos and additional details. Several sections of the river scarp show signs of being struck and eroded by direct impact of the incandescent blocks that arrived with high speed. The dome that supplied the block-and-ash flows became visibly deflated but activity culminated through the week with the formation of a new dome toward the E side of the summit. The formation and destruction of domes at the top of Crater C is very common. These domes reach ten's of meters in size and frequently collapse violently, especially when they are destabilized at the crater rim.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 111. Changes in morphology at Arenal's Crater C are visible owing to the 24 May 2010 dome collapse. Located on the eastern side of the summit, the point of failure was attributed to the "Unstable area." Courtesy of E. Duarte (OVSICORI-UNA).

Decreasing activity. The number of explosive events peaked in February 2010, became regular up to October, but since mid-October they have become sporadic. No lava flows or night-time incandescence was observed on the flanks. Gas emission continued at the active Crater C and fumarolic activity was continuous at Crater D, the pre-1968 summit crater.

Acid-rain affected Arenal's flanks and the NE, E, and SE flanks showed a loss of vegetation. These conditions plus the high amounts of rainfall aggravated erosion on the steep slopes; rockfalls and landslides continued to occur in these valleys: Calle de Arenas, Manolo, Guillermina, and Río Agua Caliente. OVSICORI-UNA released a report on acid-rain measurements that began on 9 April 2003 and ended on 30 November 2010; data from four stations showed generally decreasing acidity with time (figure 112). The trend steadily increased from pH ~4 to ~4.5 for all stations. Although irregular spikes are recorded, the low outliers were generally less acidic with time.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 112. Variation of the pH (level of acidity) of rain-water collected from four stations on Arenal. Data points represent measurements from 9 April 2003 to 30 November 2010. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Waldo Taylor assessed seismic data from the local network. The 2010 mid-year ICE report discussed seismicity and the general trend shown in table 26. The large spike in seismic events from 2009 dropped off abruptly the following year.

Table 26. Earthquakes counted at Arenal during 2005-2010. Courtesy of ICE.

Year Number of earthquakes
2005 3
2006 12
2007 15
2008 47
2009 239
2010 56

Gerardo J. Soto discussed Arenal seismicity. "In general terms, the average magnitude increased from 2.0 in 2006 to 2.3 in 2010. The biggest was M 4.1 in 1 November 2009. Mean [focal] depth deepened from 5.5 km in 2006 to about 2 km in 2010. Most of them were between 2 and 5 km deep in 2009-2010, and down to 9 km deep in 2010.

"The number of [respective] earthquakes from September through December 2010 decreased monthly [in the sequence] 24, 12, 9, 3. Epicenters shifted from SE to NW quadrangle of the volcano through time.

"We preliminarily interpret this as a possible withdrawal of magma below the volcano, [on the basis of] focal mechanisms."

Secondary hazards. With Arenal's decrease in explosive activity, no ash collection has been possible this year (2011). A network of seven stations exists for regular sampling. The most effusive event occurred in 1968 when roughly 2 x 105 metric tons of ash fell on the flanks. Later, a hydroelectric project was completed in the 1970s and filled the basin below the volcano with 2.416 x 106 m3 of water (the maximum storage capacity), forming Lake Arenal. From 1992 to 1997, the annual sediment load into the lake contained 1.4% remobilized material from Arenal.

Future activity at Arenal within the next 100 years may include large eruptions with the potential to produce 10 million metric tons of volcanic sediments; within the next 200 years an extreme event could contribute 107 metric tons of volcaniclastics to Lake Arenal (Soto, 1998). The distribution of volcaniclastic sediments is largely controlled by the Río Agua Caliente, a drainage connecting tributaries from Arenal's southern flank. Roughly every 2-5 years there are relatively large debris flows along this river. As recently as the first week of May 2011, intense flooding damaged a bridge by severely undermining the concrete abutments (G.J. Soto, personal communication).

Satellite thermal alerts. Since 15 September 2010 there have been no MODVOLC satellite thermal alerts through February 2011.

References. Soto, G.J., 1998, Cálculo de ceniza eyectada por el Volcán Arenal y ceniza caída en el embalse durante el período 1992-1997; Informe OSV.98.05.ICE, 18 pp. (in Spanish)

OVSICORI-UNA, 2010, Cambios Morfológicos y Avalanchas Incandescentes del 24 de Mayo en el Volcán Arenal. (in Spanish) (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/vulcanologia/informeDeCampo/2010/InfcampAremayo10.pdf)

Geologic Background. Conical Volcán Arenal is the youngest stratovolcano in Costa Rica and one of its most active. The 1670-m-high andesitic volcano towers above the eastern shores of Lake Arenal, which has been enlarged by a hydroelectric project. Arenal lies along a volcanic chain that has migrated to the NW from the late-Pleistocene Los Perdidos lava domes through the Pleistocene-to-Holocene Chato volcano, which contains a 500-m-wide, lake-filled summit crater. The earliest known eruptions of Arenal took place about 7000 years ago, and it was active concurrently with Cerro Chato until the activity of Chato ended about 3500 years ago. Growth of Arenal has been characterized by periodic major explosive eruptions at several-hundred-year intervals and periods of lava effusion that armor the cone. An eruptive period that began with a major explosive eruption in 1968 ended in December 2010; continuous explosive activity accompanied by slow lava effusion and the occasional emission of pyroclastic flows characterized the eruption from vents at the summit and on the upper western flank.

Information Contacts: Phil Slosberg and Eliecer Duarte, Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Gerardo J. Soto, Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), Apartado 10032-1000, San José, Costa Rica; Waldo Taylor, Sismológico y Vulcanológico de Arenal y Miravalles (OSIVAM), Oficina de Sismología y Vulcanología (OSV), Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), Apartado 10032-1000, San José, Costa Rica.


Endeavour Segment (Canada) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Endeavour Segment

Canada

47.95°N, 129.1°W; summit elev. -2050 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Acoustic imaging of ongoing hydrothermal venting

The Grotto vent cluster contains an assemblage of black smoker vents that lie within the Main Endeavour Field on the northern Juan de Fuca ridge (Bemis, 2001; Rona and others, 2001, 2010a; Bobbitt, 2007) (figure 4). New imagery of submarine plume behavior and properties was achieved with a new acoustic system that extends underwater observational distances beyond those of light to image buoyant plumes of submarine black smokers in 3-dimensions and image areas of diffuse flow seeping from the sea floor in 2-dimensions (Rona, 2011; Rona and others, 2010a, 2010b, and 2011).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 4. Map of Main Endeavour Field, Juan de Fuca Ridge (grid system in meters), showing the location of the Grotto Vent at grid coordinates of about 6115 and 4920. Note scale-the entire Endeavour Field is only ~400 m long. According to Merle (2006) Grotto vent resides at 47.95°N latitude, 129.10°W longitude, and at a depth of ~2,196 m.

The Cabled Observatory Vent Imaging Sonar (COVIS) was installed in September 2010 (Light, 2011). Operations were initiated with in situ sensors in the NEPTUNE (North-East Pacific Time-Series Underwater Networked Experiments) Canada Program cabled observatory on the Main Endeavour Field (MEF) of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, nearly 370 km (200 nautical miles) off British Columbia, Canada, in the NE Pacific Ocean (figures 5 and 6). NEPTUNE is a Canadian research facility designed for regional-scale underwater ocean investigations focusing on continuous monitoring of temperature, chemistry, biodiversity, and motion. This data will be broadcast via the Internet for scientists, students, educators and the public to collaborate and promote investigations into: underwater volcanic processes; earthquakes and tsunamis; minerals, metals, and hydrocarbons; ocean-atmosphere interactions; climate change; greenhouse gas cycling in the ocean; marine ecosystems; long-term changes in ocean productivity; marine mammals; fish stocks; pollution and toxic blooms. The public can gain a more in-depth understanding of the seafloor, while ocean scientists can run deep-water experiments from labs and universities anywhere around the world.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 5. Map of NEPTUNE Canada Program's six submarine sites with multiple sensors connected to a high-speed optical cable linked with University of Victoria in British Columbia, Canada. The Main Endeavour Field, labeled as Endeavor (in red), one of the instrumented sites, is ~350 km WSW from Port Alberni. Over the project's 25-year lifespan, Endeavor will collect data for underwater volcanic processes, seismicity, plate tectonics, hydrothermal vent systems, and deep sea ecosystems. Courtesy of NEPTUNE Canada (2011).

During a research cruise in September-October 2010, scientists from the University of Washington and Rutgers University connected COVIS to the NEPTUNE Canada cable system for the first time and initiated data acquisition on 29 September 2010. COVIS, equipped with a customized multibeam sonar, 400/200 kHz projectors, and a rotator system to orient acoustic transducers, was positioned to acquire acoustic data from a fixed site on the floor of the ridge's axial valley at a range of tens of meters from the Grotto vent cluster in the MEF (figure 6).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 6. COVIS acoustic image, oriented NE on the left to NW on the right, made at 0600 UTC on 11 October 2010, looking S at black smoker plumes and areas of diffuse flow draped over bathymetry of the Grotto vent cluster (Jackson and others, 2003) in the Main Endeavour Field, Juan de Fuca Ridge. The image was made when tidal currents were minimal (e.g., near slack tide). The larger plume is from the N tower edifice at the NW end, and the smaller plumes are from the NE end of Grotto vent at the in-situ experiments. The legend (at the upper left) specifies isosurfaces of plume volume scattering strengths (in decibels per meter) related to particle content and temperature-density discontinuities. The vertical color bar (at the far right) gives normalized decorrelation of backscatter (0-1) due to diffuse flow from the sea floor at 0.8-sec lag. The plumes decrease in acoustic backscatter intensity as they mix with surrounding seawater with height (in meters) above vents. From Rona (2011).

The purpose of the COVIS experiment was to acoustically image, quantify, and monitor seafloor hydrothermal flow on time scales of hours (response to ocean tides) to weeks-months-years (response to volcanic and tectonic events); this advances our understanding of these interrelated processes. According to Rona and others (2003), net volume flux of a plume can be calculated by integrating the vertical flux through a plume cross-section, which can then be converted to heat and particle flux if coordinated with in-situ measurements of temperature and particle properties (concentration, size distribution, density). To achieve this, COVIS acquired acoustic data from a projector mounted on a tripod ~4 m above the seafloor at a fixed position. A computer controlled, 3- degrees-of-freedom (yaw, pitch, and roll), positioning system was used to point the sonar transducers providing a large coverage area at the site. Sonar data is collected at ranges of tens of meters from targets to make three types of measurements: 1) volume backscatter intensity from suspended particulate matter and temperature fluctuations in black smoker plumes which was used to reconstruct the size and shape of the buoyant portion of a plume; 2) Doppler phase shift which was used to obtain the flow rise velocity at various levels in a buoyant plume; 3) scintillation which was used to image the area of diffuse flow seeping from the seafloor.

References. Bemis, K.G., Rona, P.A., Jackson, D.R., Jones, C., Mitsuzawa, K., Palmer, D., Silver, D., and Gudlavalletti, R., 2001, Time-averaged images and quantifications of seafloor hydrothermal plumes from acoustic imaging data: a case study at Grotto Vent, Endeavour Segment Seafloor Observatory, Abstract OS21B-0446 presented at American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001, San Francisco, CA, December.

Bobbitt, A., 2007, NeMO 2007 Cruise Report: Axial Volcano, Endeavour Segment, and Cobb Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge, R/V Atlantis Cruise AT 15-21, August 3-20, 2007, Astoria, Oregon, to Astoria Oregon, Jason dives J2-286 to J2-295, unpublished report (URL: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/nemo/NeMO2007-cruise-report.pdf)

Jackson, D.R., Jones, C.D., Rona, P.A., and Bemis, K.G., 2003, A method for Doppler acoustic measurement of black smoker flow fields, Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems (G3), v. 4, no. 11, p. 1095 (DOI: 10.1029/2003GC000509, 2003).

Light, R., Miller, V., Rona, P., and Bemis, K., 2010, Acoustic Instrumentation for Imaging and Quantifying Hydrothermal Flow in the NEPTUNE Canada Regional Cabled Observatory at Main Endeavour Field (unpublished paper - URL: http://www.apl.washington.edu/projects/apl_presents/topics/covis/covis.php).

Light, R., Miller, V., Jackson, D.R., Rona, P.A., and Bemis, K.G., 2011, Cabled observatory vent imaging sonar (abstract of presentation), Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, v. 129, no. 4, p. 2373.

Merle, S. (compiler), 2006, NeMO 2006 Cruise Report, NOAA Vents Program, Axial Volcano and the Endeavour Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge, R/V THOMPSON Cruise TN-199, August 22 - September 7, 2006. Seattle WA to Seattle WA; ROPOS dives R1008 - R1014 (URL: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/nemo2006/nemo06-crrpt-final.pdf).

NEPTUNE Canada, 2011, Transforming Ocean Science; Ocean Networks Canada. (URL: http://www.neptunecanada.ca/about-neptune-canada/neptune-canada-101/)

Rona, P.A., Bemis, K.G., Jackson, D.R., Jones, C.D., Mitsuzawa, K., Palmer, D.R., and Silver, D., 2001, Acoustic Imaging Time Series of Plume Behavior at Grotto Vent, Endeavour Observatory, Juan de Fuca Ridge, Abstract OS21B-0445 presented at American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001, San Francisco, CA, December.

Rona, P.A., Jackson, D.J., Bemis, K.G., Jones, C.D., Mitsuzawa, K., Palmer, D.R., and Silver, D., 2003, A New Dimension in Investigation of Seafloor Hydrothermal Flows, Ridge 2000 Events, v. 1, no. 1, p. 26 (URL: http://ridge2000.bio.psu.edu).

Rona, P.A., Bemis, K.G., Jones, C., Jackson, D. R., Mitsuzawa, K, and Palmer, D. R., 2010a, Partitioning Between Plume and Diffuse Flow at the Grotto Vent Cluster, Main Endeavour Vent Field, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Past and Present, Abstract OS21C-1519 presented at American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2010, San Francisco, Calif., December.

Rona, P., Light, R., Miller, V., Jackson, D., Bemis, K., Jones, C., and KenneyM., 2010b, Cabled Observatory Vent Imaging Sonar (COVIS) Connected to NEPTUNE Canada Cabled Observatory (poster abstract), 2010 R2K (Ridge 2000) Community Meeting, Portland, OR, 29-31 October 2010 (URL: http://ridge2000.marine-geo.org/community-meeting/october-2010/2010-r2k-community-meeting).

Rona, P., 2011, Sonar images hydrothermal vents in seafloor observatory, EOS Transactions, American Geophysical Union, v. 92, no., 20, p. 169-170.

Rona, P.A., Benis, K.G., Jones, C.D., and Jackson, D.R., 2011, Multibeam sonar observations of hydrothermal flows at the Main Endeavour Field (abstract of presentation), Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, v. 129, no. 4, p. 2373.

Geologic Background. The Endeavour Segment (or Ridge) lies near the northern end of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, W of the coast of Washington and SW of Vancouver Island. The northern end is offset to the east with respect to the West Valley Segment, which extends north to the triple junction with the Sovanco Fracture Zone and the Nootka Fault. The 90-km-long, NNE-SSW-trending segment lies at a depth of more than 2,000 m and is the site of vigorous high-temperature hydrothermal vent systems that were discovered in 1981. Five major vent fields that include sulfide chimneys and black smoker vents are spaced at about 2-km intervals in a 1-km-wide axial valley at the center of the ridge. Preliminary uranium-series dates of Holocene age were obtained on basaltic lava flows, and other younger "zero-age" flows were sampled. Seismic swarms were detected in 1991 and 2005.

Information Contacts: Peter Rona, Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences and Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ; NEPTUNE Canada (URL: http://www.oceannetworks.ca/).


Eyjafjallajokull (Iceland) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Eyjafjallajokull

Iceland

63.633°N, 19.633°W; summit elev. 1651 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Eruption ended in late June 2010; sample of growing literature on the eruption

Gudmundsson and others (2010a) noted that the last day of sustained activity at Eyjafjallajökull took place on 22 May 2010. By 23 June 2010, the Iceland Meteorological Office (IMO) and the University of Iceland Institute of Earth Sciences (IES) ceased issuing regular status reports. In addition to discussing the eruption and its final stages, this report also cites a small sample of abstracts and papers from the numerous conferences, sessions, and publications that have thus far emerged on the eruption.

The eruption's initial phase, 20 March-12 April 2010, occurred at Fimmvörðuháls, a spot on the E flanks of Eyjafjallajökull (figure 16, and "F" and "E" on figure 17). Venting at Fimmvörðuháls took place on an exposed ridge cropping out in a region with extensive glaciers to the E and W. Eruptions began in the initially ice-capped summit crater of Eyjafjallajökull on 14 April 2010 (BGVN 35:03 and 35:04). After melting overlying portions of the icecap, the summit crater then emitted clouds of fine-grained ash that remained suspended in the atmosphere for long distances. The ash blew both over the Atlantic and for considerable intervals passed directly over Europe, halting flights of most commercial aircraft for nearly a week in a controversial shutdown with economic impacts in the billions.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 16. Index map showing Iceland, some major plate-tectonic features and generalized spreading directions, and the location of Eyjafjallajökull volcano. Note proximity of Eyjafjallajökull to Katla and to the volcanoes of the Vestmann island area (Vestmannaeyjar), Surtsey and Heimaey. Courtesy of USGS.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 17. A shaded-relief map showing Eyjafjallajökull (E), and 9 km to its E, the flank vent Fimmvörðuháls (F). Stars indicate 2010 eruptive sites (map scale at top left). Glaciers cover extensive portions of both Eyjafjallajökull and Katla volcanoes (light pattern). During 14-29 April 2010 many earthquakes struck with epicenters along the N-S axis of Eyjafjallajökull (black dots). The map includes a small slice of the Atlantic ocean along the lower left-hand margin. Two of four geodetic (GPS) stations are shown (STE2 and THEY). Revised from a map by Sigmundsson and others (2010).

In terms of satellite thermal data on the overall eruption, the MODVOLC system measured extensive (multi-pixel) daily alerts during 21 March-21 May 2010, but the alerts became absent thereafter.

Venting at Fimmvörðuháls. At a 15-19 September 2010 conference on the eruption, Höskuldsson and others (2010a) characterized the course of events during the 20 March to 12 April basaltic Fimmvörðuháls flank eruption at Eyjafjallajökull as follows: "At the beginning the eruption featured as many as 15 lava fountains with maximum height of 150 m. On March 24 only four vents were active with fountains reaching to heights of 100 m. On March 31 and April 1 the activity was characterized by relatively weak fountaining through a forcefully stirring pool of lava. The vents were surrounded by 60-80 m high ramparts and the level of lava stood at approximately 40 m. This high stand led to opening of a new fissure trending northwest from the central segment of the original fissure. As activity on the new fissure intensified, the discharge from the original fissure declined and stopped on April 7.

"The intensity of the lava fountains varied significantly on the time scale of hours and was strongly influenced the level of the lava pond in the vents, producing narrow, gas-charged, piston-like fountains during periods of low lava levels, but spray-like fountains when the lava level was high . . ..

"The eruption produced a fountain-fed lava flow field with an area of about 1.3 km2. Initially (20-25 March), the lava advanced towards northeast, but on March 26 the lava began advancing to the west and northwest, especially after April 1 when the activity became concentrated on the new fissure. The flow field morphology is dominantly 'a'a, but domains of pahoehoe and slabby pahoehoe are present, particularly in the western sector of the flow field. The advance of the lava from the vents was episodic; when the lava stood high the lava surged out of the vents, but at low stand there was a lull in the advance. The lava discharged from the vents through open channels as well as internal pathways. The open channels were the most visible part of the transport system, feeding lava to active 'a'a flow fronts and producing spectacular lava falls when cascading into deep gullies just north of the vents. The role of internal pathways was much less noticeable, yet an important contribution to the overall growth of the flow field as it fed significant surface breakouts emerging on the surface of what otherwise looked like stagnant lava. When activity stopped on April 12 the fissure had issued about 0.025 km3 of magma, giving a mean discharge of 13 m3/s."

Summit eruption. The second eruption occurred within the initially ice-covered caldera of Eyjafjallajökull. Opening of the ice cover and explosivity into the atmosphere was amplified by magma-ice interaction that produced a fine ash capable of suspension in the atmosphere for prolonged periods.

Höskuldsson and others (2010b) described the eruption at Eyjafjallajökull's summit (beginning 14 April 2010) as consisting of three phases (table 2). They also stated that at the summit the "Total amount of tephra produced in the eruption is about 0.11 km3 and that of lava 0.025 km3 DRE [dense-rock equivalent]. Average discharge rate in the eruption was about 40 m3/s DRE or about 4 times that of Fimmvörðuháls eruption."

Table 2. Three phases of the eruption at Eyjafjallajökull volcano's summit beginning 14 April 2010 as summarized and condensed by Höskuldsson and others (2010b).

Dates Phase Description of Activity
14 Apr-17 Apr 2010 I Plumes often under 6 km but up to ~9 km altitude.
18 Apr-04 May 2010 II High tremor with lava flows; generally weak and ash-poor plumes. Pulsating activity with small discrete explosions every few seconds. Tephra grains had fluidal shapes suggesting magmatic fragmentation and decreased viscosity of erupting magma. Plumes on 28th to 7 km altitude.
05 May-22 May 2010 III Plumes up to 5 km altitude.

The summit area was still steaming and geothermally active, and the eruption channel was still very hot in October 2010 (figure 18). Investigators expected that cooling to ambient temperatures would take a few years . As noted below, during June 2010, hot lava could still be seen in cracks in the cooled rock on Fimmvörðuháls, and inside craters, but that was not the case at the ice-engulfed summit caldera.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 18. The summit crater complex of Eyjafjallajökull taken after the first winter snow, as seen from the air at 0810 on 9 October 2010. The scene helps explain the high degree of water and ice interaction with the erupting lavas. Snow had melted from numerous ash and lava-covered surfaces (black areas). Although portions of the crater emitted steam, evidence of substantial ongoing lava emissions were absent at this point in time. Photo courtesy of Ólafur Sigurjónsson, IMO.

According to Gudmundsson and others (2010b) the summit eruption produced 0.1-0.2 km3 (dense rock equivalent) of tephra. IES reported that by 11 June 2010 a lake about 300 m in diameter had formed in the large summit crater, and by 23 June water was slowly accumulating in the crater because ice was no longer in contact with hot material.

Intrusion triggering. Sigmundsson and others (2010) noted that the 2010 eruptions came after 18 years of intermittent volcanic unrest. The deformation associated with the eruptions was unusual because it did not relate to pressure changes within a single source. Deformation was rapid before the flank eruption (0.5 mm per day after 4 March 2010), but negligible during it.

During the summit eruption (beginning 14 April 2010) gradual contraction of a source, distinct from the pre-eruptive inflation sources, was evident from geodetic data. Thus, clear signals of volcanic unrest may occur over years to weeks, indicating reawakening of such volcanoes, whereas immediate short-term eruption precursors may be subtle and difficult to detect.

Figure 19 shows a cross-sectional model of the shallow crust by Sigmundsson and others (2010) based deformation and seismic analyses of the 2010 event. A previous issue of the Bulletin (BGVN 35:03) contained an alternate model by Paul Einarsson.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 19. Schematic E-W cross-section across the Eyjafjallajökull summit area, with deformation sources plotted at their best-fit depth (vertical exaggeration of 2). Gray shaded background indicates source-depth uncertainties (95% confidence interval), which overlap. Courtesy of Sigmundsson and others (2010).

Processed satellite image. Vincent J. Realmuto created two composite figures generated from the MODIS-Terra satellite data acquired 15 April 2010 at 1135 UTC (figure 20). Outlined in black in each image are Iceland on the upper left side (W), Faroe Islands in the center, Scotland and N Ireland in the lower center, and part of the Scandinavian peninsula on the right side (E). An ash plume can be seen in each image extending from Iceland SW toward Europe. The left-hand image is the true-color RGB (red-green-blue) composite and the right-hand image is a false-color composite; in the right-hand rendition the ash plume appears red and the ice-rich clouds appear blue. The right-hand image puts obvious emphasis on the ash plume and shows it streaming and more or less intact for several hundreds of kilometers E of Iceland.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 20. Graphics generated from the MODIS-Terra satellite data acquired 15 April 2010 at 1135 UTC. The left-hand graphic is a true-color RGB (red-green-blue) composite, and the right-hand image is a false-color composite of Bands 32, 31, and 29 (12, 11, and 8.5 um, respectively) displayed in red, green, and blue, respectively. These data were processed with the decorrelation stretch (D-stretch), a technique for enhancing spectral contrast based on principal components analysis. In this rendition the ash plume appears red and the ice-rich clouds appear blue. The D-stretch was based on scene statistics and was intended to be a quick method for discriminating material that may be volcanic in origin. Courtesy of Vincent J. Realmuto, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology.

Conference field trip. Following The Atlantic Conference on Eyjafjallajökull and Aviation in Iceland, 15-16 September 2010 (discussed below), a field trip brought scientists to accessible areas on the volcano, including the flank vent on Fimmvörðuháls ridge where the eruption began. John and Liudmila Eichelberger provided some photographs from this trip (figure 21). The same base map appeared in BGVN 35:03, with the key and other data. The horseshoe shape of the lava distribution in this figure is the feature imaged by an ASTER satellite thermal signature as active lava flows on 19 April 2010 in BGVN 35:03.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 21. (Central panel) Map showing fissures at Fimmvörðuháls (thin red lines) and the distribution of new scoria and lava deposited at various points in time (shaded areas) during 21 March-7 April 2010. Marked arrows on the map give locations of labeled photos (A-E) taken 18 September 2010. (A) Fresh lava (darker) seen looking N. In the distance appear fresh black lava flows, some portions of which formed the lava falls down the valley walls. (B) View showing the elongate ridge as seen from the upslope perspective (people in the distance for scale). (C, looking down) Glowing lava (~1.5 m long and ~0.3 m wide) at the bottom of a fissure. This photo was taken with a flash, otherwise the fissure walls would have been very dark. (D) The fracture indicated on the map as it appeared near the rim of the ridge of newly erupted lava. (E) The same fracture seen in D from another perspective. Courtesy of John and Ludmilla Eichelberger.

More on conferences and publications. Recently, several conferences have been held and many publications have been issued relevant to the eruption. What follows is a mere sample of the available resources, many of which emphasized plume research. At the American Geophysical Union (AGU) 2010 Fall Meeting, several sessions focused on the 2010 eruption (eg., Carn and others, 2010; see References for the link to abstracts volume).

The Workshop on Ash Dispersal Forecast and Civil Aviation held in Geneva, 18-20 October 2010, addressed the characteristics and range of application of different volcanic ash transport and dispersal models (VATDM), identifying the needs of the modeling community, investigating new data acquisition strategies, and discussing how to improve communication between the volcanology community and operational agencies (eg., Bonadonna and others, 2011).

The Cities on Volcanoes conference (COV-6; Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain, 31 May-4 June 2010) included both papers (eg. Fischer and others, 2010) and a forum on the "Assessment of volcanic ash threat: learning and considerations from the Eyjafjallajökull eruption."

In addition, several other papers relevant to the eruption were presented during this meeting, as well as at the Annual Meeting of the American Meteorological Society (AMS) in Seattle, WA, in January 2011, and at the European Geosciences Union (EGU) 2011 General Assembly in Vienna, Austria.

The journal Atmospheric Chemisrty and Physics published multiple issues with a section entitled "Atmospheric implications of the volcanic eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland 2010." These and other papers discussed various means of plume detection, and in some cases, sampling, including on the ground, in ultralight aircraft, and on satellites; models of plume dispersion were evaluated (Flentje and others, 2010; Emeis and others, 2011; Vogel and others, 2011; Fischer and others, 2010).

According to Loughlin (2010), scientists from the British Geological Survey found large ash particles from the eruption in the United Kingdom. Most of the very small ash particles in volcanic plumes fell as clusters of particles known as aggregates. The aggregation could have resulted from a number of mechanisms, including electrostatic attraction, particle collisions, condensation of liquid films and secondary mineralization. The process of aggregation effectively removed very small particles from the plume and was therefore one variable on how long ash particles stay in the atmosphere. Ripley (2010) and Chivers (2010) published articles on the U.K. Met Office's tracking and prediction of movements of volcanic ash based on observations from the Eyjafjallajökull eruption.

Gislason and others (2011) reported on analyses of two sets of fresh, comparatively dry ash samples that fell in Iceland and were collected rapidly on 15 and 27 April, during more and less explosive phases, respectively. Both sets of samples were kept dry and analyzed swiftly to minimize issues with hydration and alteration, particularly to salts on the ash surfaces. The ash was dominantly glass of andesitic composition (57-58% SiO2). They found the ash particles especially sharp and abrasive over their entire size range, from submillimeter to tens of nanometers.

References. Bonadonna, C., Folch, A., and Loughlin, S., 2011, Future Developments in Modeling and Monitoring of Volcanic Ash Clouds, Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union (AGU), v. 92, no. 10; pp. 85-86, DOI: 10.1029/2011EO100008 (URL: http://www.agu.org/pub/eos/).

Carn, S.A., Karlsdottir, S., and Prata, F., 2010, The 2010 Eruption of Eyjafjallajokull: A Landmark Event for Volcanic Cloud Hazards I, II, and III, Abstracts V41E, V53F, and V54C presented at 2010 Fall Meeting, American Geophysical Union, San Francisco, CA, 13-17 December 2010 (URL: http://www.agu.org/meetings/fm10/program/index.php).

Chivers, H., 2010, Dark Cloud: VAAC and predicting the movement of volcanic ash, Meterological Technology International, June 2010, pp. 62-65.

Emeis, S., Forkel, R., Junkermann, W., Schäfer, K., Flentje, H., Gilge, S., Fricke, W., Wiegner, M., Freudenthaler, V., Groß, S., Ries, L., Meinhardt, F., Birmili, W., Münkel, C., Obleitner, F., and Suppan, P., 2011, Measurement and simulation of the 16/17 April 2010 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash layer dispersion in the northern Alpine region, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, v. 11, pp. 2689-2701.

Fischer, C., van Haren, G., Pohl, T., Vogel, A., and Weber, K., 2010, Airborne in-situ measurements of the volcanic ash dust plume over a part of Germany caused by the volcano eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland) by means of an optical particle counter and a light

sport aircraft, Abstract, Session 1.3, p. 229, Cities on Volcanoes 6 Conference (URL: http://www.citiesonvolcanoes6.com/ver.php).

Flentje, H., Claude, H., Elste, T., Gilge, S., Köhler, U., Plass-Dülmer, C., Steinbrecht, W., Thomas, W., Werner, A., and Fricke W., 2010, The Eyjafjallajökull eruption in April 2010 - detection of volcanic plume using in-situ measurements, ozone sondes and lidar-ceilometer profiles, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, v. 10, pp. 10085-10092, DOI: 10.5194.

Gasteiger, J., Groß, S., Freudenthaler, V., and Wiegner, M., 2011, Volcanic ash from Iceland over Munich: mass concentration retrieved from ground-based remote sensing measurements, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, v. 11, pp. 2209-2223.

Gislason, S.R., Hassenkam, T., Nedel, S., Bovet, N., Eiriksdottir, E.S., Alfredsson, H.A., Hem, C.P., Balogh, Z.I., Dideriksen, K., Oskarsson, N., Sigfusson, B., Larsen, G., and Stipp, S.L.S., 2011, Characterization of Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash particles and a protocol for rapid risk assessment, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, v. 108, no. 18, p. 7303-7312.

Gudmundsson, M. T., Pedersen, R., Vogfjörd, K., Thorbjarnardóttir, B., Jakobsdóttir, S., and Roberts, M.J., 2010a, Eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull Volcano, Iceland, Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union (AGU), v. 91, no. 21, p. 190, DOI: 10.1029/2010EO210002.

Gudmundsson, M.T., Thordarson, T., Hoskuldsson, A., Larsen, G., Jónsdóttir, I., Oddsson, B., Magnusson, E., Hognadottir, T., Sverrisdottir, G., Oskarsson, N., Thorsteinsson, T., Vogfjord, K., Bjornsson, H., Pedersen, G.N., Jakobsdottir, S., Hjaltadottir, S., Roberts, M.J., Gudmundsson, G.B., Zophoniasson, S., and Hoskuldsson, F., 2010b, The Eyjafjallajökull eruption in April-May 2010; course of events, ash generation and ash dispersal, EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union (AGU), V. 91, no. 21, Abstract V53F-01, 2010 Fall Meeting, AGU, San Francisco, Calif., 13-17 December (URL: http://www.agu.org/cgi-bin).

Heue, K.-P., Brenninkmeijer,C.A.M., Baker, A. K., Rauthe-Schöch, A., Walter, D., Wagner, T., Hörmann, C., Sihler, H., Dix, B., Frieß, U., Platt, U., Martinsson, B. G., van Velthoven, P.F.J., Zahn, A., and Ebinghaus, R., 2011, SO2 and BrO observation in the plume of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano 2010: CARIBIC and GOME-2 retrievals, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, v. 11, pp. 2973-2989.

Höskuldsson, A., Magnusson, E., Guðmundsson, M.T., Sigmundsson, F., and Sigmarsson, O., 2010a, The 20 March to 12 April basaltic Fimmvörðuháls flank eruption at Eyjafjallajökull volcano, Iceland: Course of events, abstract of presentation in Program of the Eyjafjallajökull and Aviation Conference (15-16 September 2010) and associated Eyjafjallajökull Eruption Workshop (Hotel Hvolsvellir, 17-19 September 2010); (URL: http://en.keilir.net/keilir/conferences/eyjafjallajokull/volcanological-workshop).

Höskuldsson, Á., Larsen, G., Gudmundsson, M.T., Oddsson, B., Magnússon, E., Sigmarsson, O., Óskarsson, N., Jónsdóttir, I., Sigmundsson, F., Einarsson, P., Hreinsdóttir, S., Pedersen, R., Högnadóttir, Þ., Thordarson, T., Hayward, C., Hartley, M., Meara, R., Arason, Þ., Karlsdóttir, S., and Petersen, G.N., 2010b, The Eyjafjallajökull eruption April to May 2010: Magma fragmentation, plume and tephra transport, and course of events, abstract of presentation in Program of the Eyjafjallajökull and Aviation Conference (15-16 September 2010) and associated Eyjafjallajökull Eruption Workshop (17-19 September 2010); (URL: http://en.keilir.net/keilir/conferences/eyjafjallajokull/volcanological-workshop).

Laursen, L., 2010, Iceland eruptions fuel interest in volcanic gas monitoring, Science, v. 328, no. 5977, p. 410-411.

Loughlin, S., 2010, Modelling of Iceland volcanic ash particles, news item from British Geological Survey (URL: http://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/highlights/IcelandAshParticles.html?src=sfb).

Ripley, T., 2010, Cloud Busting: How the UK is tracking the volcanic ash cloud, Meterological Technology International, June 2010, pp. 6-10.

Schumann, U., Weinzierl, B., Reitebuch, O., Schlager, H., Minikin, A., Forster, C., Baumann, R., Sailer, T., Graf, K., Mannstein, H., Voigt, C., Rahm, S., Simmet, R., Scheibe, M., Lichtenstern, M., Stock, P., Rüba, H., Schäuble, D., Tafferner, A., Rautenhaus, M., Gerz, T., Ziereis, H., Krautstrunk, M., Mallaun, C., Gayet, J.-F., Lieke, K., Kandler, K., Ebert, M., Weinbruch, S., Stohl, A., Gasteiger, J., Groß, S., Freudenthaler, V., Wiegner, M., Ansmann, A., Tesche, M., Olafsson, H., and Sturm, K., 2011, Airborne observations of the Eyjafjalla volcano ash cloud over Europe during air space closure in April and May 2010, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, v. 11, pp. 2245-2279.

Sigmundsson, F., Hreinsdóttir, S., Hooper, A., Árnadóttir, T., Pedersen, R., Roberts, M.J., Óskarsson, N., Auriac, A., Decriem, J., Einarsson, P., Geirsson, H., Hensch, M., Ófeigsson, B.G., Sturkell, E., Sveinbjörnsson, H., and Feigl, K.L., 2010, Letter: Intrusion triggering of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull explosive eruption, Nature, v. 468, pp. 426-430.

Stohl, A., Prata, A.J., Eckhardt, S., Clarisse, L., Durant, A., Henne, S., Kristiansen, N.I., Minikin, A., Schumann, U., Seibert, P., Stebel, K., Thomas, H.E., Thorsteinsson, T., Tørseth, K., and Weinzierl, B., 2011, Determination of time- and height-resolved volcanic ash emissions and their use for quantitative ash dispersion modeling: the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, v. 11, pp. 4333-4351.

Vogel, A., Weber, K., Fischer, C., van Haren, G., Pohl, T., Grobety, B., and Meier, M., 2011, Airborne in-situ measurements of the Eyjafjallojökull ash plume with a small aircraft and optical particle spectrometers over north-western Germany - comparison between the aircraft measurements and the VAAC-model calculations, European Geophysical Union General Assembly, Geophysical Research Abstracts, v. 13, p. EGU2011-13253.

Geologic Background. Eyjafjallajökull (also known as Eyjafjöll) is located west of Katla volcano. It consists of an elongated ice-covered stratovolcano with a 2.5-km-wide summit caldera. Fissure-fed lava flows occur on both the E and W flanks, but are more prominent on the western side. Although the volcano has erupted during historical time, it has been less active than other volcanoes of Iceland's eastern volcanic zone, and relatively few Holocene lava flows are known. An intrusion beneath the S flank from July-December 1999 was accompanied by increased seismic activity. The last historical activity prior to an eruption in 2010 produced intermediate-to-silicic tephra from the central caldera during December 1821 to January 1823.

Information Contacts: Institute of Earth Sciences (IES), University of Iceland, Sturlugata 7, Askja , 101 Reykjavík (URL: http://www.earthice.hi.is/); Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) (URL: http://en.vedur.is/earthquakes-and-volcanism/articles/nr/1884); U.K. Meteorological Office (URL: http://www.metoffice.gov.uk); ármann Höskuldsson, Institute of Earth Sciences (IES), University of Iceland, Sturlugata 7, Askja , 101 Reykjavík (URL: http://www.earthice.hi.is); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sue C. Loughlin, The British Geological Survey, Murchison House, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3LA, Scotland, UK (URL: http://www.bgs.ac.uk/); Vincent J. Realmuto, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, M/S 183-501, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA; John Eichelberger, U.S. Geological Survey, Volcano Hazards Program, Reston, VA (URL: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/); Ludmilla Eichelberger, Global Volcanism Program, National Museum of Natural History, 10th and Constitution Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20560 USA; Iceland Review (URL: http://icelandreview.com/icelandreview/daily_news/).


Irazu (Costa Rica) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Irazu

Costa Rica

9.979°N, 83.852°W; summit elev. 3436 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Crater lake dries and regional acid-rain report

In April 2010 the lake within Irazú's crater dwindled to only a few centimeters depth and from May to August the lake was dry enough to allow plants to grow up to 10 cm high. Water began to accumulate in September 2010 but disappeared again during the following month. Since November 2010 water returned to the crater and as late as April 2011, a shallow turquoise-blue lake was maintained. Continuous monitoring of acid rain on Irazú's flanks reflected contributions from Turrialba. Often called Irazú's "twin volcano," Turrialba is less than 10 km to the ENE and during the past 4 years it has caused a region-wide increase in acid rain. Covering January 2004 through September 2007, the last Bulletin report on Irazú (BGVN 32:11) highlighted decreasing lake levels, fumarolic changes, and minor mass wasting on the crater walls during January 2004 to March 2007 (see table 8 for a summary of lake changes).

Table 8. Changing lake conditions based on observations of Irazú's crater. Double asterisks indicate times when the lake disappeared; "--" fills cells where no data is available; lake levels are reported qualitatively except for the 7 October to 12 March 2010 time interval when absolute values were measured. This summary is based on ICE data and OVSICORI Monthly Reports.

Date Lake level Temp. °C Water color Notes
** Apr 1990 Empty -- -- --
1991-1994 Stable -- green Infrequent Bubbles
08 Dec 1994 ~VEI 2 explosion from the NW outer flank fumarole~ -- -- --
1994-1996 Stable -- green Bubbles
May 2000 Decreasing 18 yellow-green Bubbles
Jan 2001 ~30 -- green Bubbles
08 Feb 2003 Stable 15 reddish Rockslide into lake
Jan-Dec 2004 Stable -- green Convection cells at edges
Jan-Nov 2005 Stable -- green Convection cells in center
Mar-Dec 2006 Stable -- increasingly yellow-green Convection cells in various locations
Mar-Sep 2007 Decreasing 145 light-green Convection cells at edges and center; bubbles
20 Sep 2007-Mar 2008 Decreasing 17 -- Bubbles
05 Mar 2008-07 Oct 2009 Decreasing 14 dark green Bubbles
07 Oct 2009-12 Mar 2010 1.4 m 16 dark-to-light green --
Apr 2010 Only few cm -- -- --
** May-Aug 2010 Empty -- -- Plants on crater floor
Sep 2010 Re-forming -- -- --
** Oct 2010 Empty -- -- --
Nov 2010-Jan 2011 Forming -- turquoise --
Feb-Apr 2011 Few meters -- turquoise-to-blue --

On 22 July 2010 a team of investigators from Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) descended to the dry crater floor. They documented changes in vegetation, fumaroles, and clay deposition on the crater floor. Photos taken during prior trips provided comparisons with previous conditions (figure 14). Rockfalls and minor mass wasting had been occurring regularly and the long runout of debris across the crater floor was visible during this investigation. Most of the debris fell from the E and SW walls. On the NE side of the dry crater a rocky area emitted low temperature (24°C) sulfur-smelling gases from three aligned vents. Higher temperatures (86°C) were measured from fumaroles on the N side of the crater but they appeared to be releasing gas with less energy than observed in the past years when bubbles were visible within the lake. Another interesting finding was a waterfall on the inside of the crater on the SW wall; this small waterfall did not have sufficient volume to pool on the crater floor and instead soaked directly into the surrounding clay.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 14. Views taken from Irazú's S rim. (top) The crater on 24 April 2004 contained a turquoise lake. (bottom) A repeat photo taken on 22 July 2010 shows the lake had disappeared; the former lake level and the clay base on the crater floor are marked. Since November 2010 water had accumulated and as of April 2011, was several meters deep. Courtesy of Eliecer Duarte, OVSICORI-UNA.

The water level in Irazú's crater has been variable throughout time; the Bulletin recorded a dry crater during February 1977 and June 1987 (SEAN 12:07), and April 1990 (BGVN 15:04). Factors highlighted during the IAVCEI CVL-7 ("Commission of Volcanic Lakes" Costa Rica, 10-19 March 2010) included complex connections with Turrialba, seasonal effects, infiltration within the crater, and the role of mass wasting. The mechanism for the recent disappearance of the lake is still under investigation by OVSICORI-UNA and ICE investigators (Guillermo Alvarado, personal communication).

Erosion. Mass wasting had been an ongoing process for at least 10 years. Material is primarily shed from the E and SW walls and the lake contained islands of black and red material formed from the debris. In February 2003 a major rockslide into the lake caused the water color to change from green to shades of red. An analysis of seismicity during that month showed no correlation to these slope failures (BGVN 28:12). Cracks along the NW rim formed and widened since December 2007; these cracks caused blocks up to 3 x 20 m to fall from the rim in March 2008.

Local gas measurements. Since the large phreatic explosion in December 1994 (BGVN 19:12), the NW fumarole has been releasing low gas emissions regularly. Different temperature measurements recorded since June 2010 ranged between 90°C to 86°C. To monitor changes in sulfur dioxide output from Irazú, a network of three stations collected rain samples from sites along the volcano's flanks.

The pH data from September 2004 through July 2010 were plotted in the OVSICORI-UNA July 2010 monthly report. The results correlate pH changes to much larger degassing events occurring at Turrialba, a neighboring volcano that began major degassing in 2007. Only the "Borde Sur" station was sampling continuously but the other two stations reflected similar trends in acidity. Despite irregular fluctuations, a decreasing pH trend began in 2007. The lowest point of the trend was measured by "Borde Este" at approximately pH 3.25. Where there "Pacayas" station data began, the trend appeared to have stabilized between pH 3.25 and 4.75.

References. D. Rouwet, R.A. Mora-Amador, C.J. Ramírez-Umaña, G. González, Seepage of "aggressive" fluids reduce volcano flank stability: the Irazú and Turrialba case, Costa Rica, Abstract, CVL 7 Workshop Costa Rica, IAVCEI-Commission of Volcanic Lakes, March 2010.

Geologic Background. The massive Irazú volcano in Costa Rica, immediately E of the capital city of San José, covers an area of 500 km2 and is vegetated to within a few hundred meters of its broad summit crater complex. At least 10 satellitic cones are located on its S flank. No lava effusion is known since the eruption of the Cervantes lava flows from S-flank vents about 14,000 years ago, and all known Holocene eruptions have been explosive. The focus of eruptions at the summit crater complex has migrated to the W towards the main crater, which contains a small lake. The first well-documented eruption occurred in 1723, and frequent explosive eruptions have occurred since. Ashfall from the last major eruption during 1963-65 caused significant disruption to San José and surrounding areas. Phreatic activity reported in 1994 may have been a landslide event from the fumarolic area on the NW summit (Fallas et al., 2018).

Information Contacts: E. Duarte, Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); G. Alvarado and G.J. Soto, Oficina de Sismologia y Vulcanologia del Arenal y Miravalles (OSIVAM), Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE), Apartado 10032-1000, San Jose, Costa Rica.


Machin (Colombia) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Machin

Colombia

4.487°N, 75.389°W; summit elev. 2749 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Seismic and non-eruptive unrest detected in 2004, 2008, 2009, and again in 2010

This is the first Bulletin report on Cerro Machín volcano, the site of seismic unrest for many years, most recently, 1992, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2008, 2009, and 2010. This activity did not lead to eruptions. Instrumental monitoring by INGEOMINAS began in 1987 and has determined Machín's background seismicity ranged from 1 to10 earthquakes/day, but during intervals of unrest, seismicity sometimes reached several hundred earthquakes per day.

This is a small but explosive volcano located at the S end of the Ruiz-Tolima massif, 185 km NNE of the Nevado del Huila volcano and 147 km WSW of Bogotá, the capital (figure 1). (Tolima volcano, not shown, lies ~22 km NNE of Machín.)

Figure (see Caption) Figure 1. Map of Colombia showing the location of the Machín volcano. Note the Departments (states) of Tolima (1) and Huila (2) are shaded regions. Courtesy of the IFRC and Relief Web.

Machín caldera contains three dacitic domes; the 3-km-wide caldera is breached to the S. According to Mendez and others (2002), there have been six eruptions within the past 10,000 years. In the same report, the authors noted geomorphological similarities between Machín and Pinatubo prior to its large 1991 eruption. The seismic events have drawn increased attention to Machín from the Volcanic and Seismological Observatory of Manizales, Colombia Institute of Geology and Mining (INGEOMINAS).

According to news articles published in mid-May 2004, INGEOMINAS reported that there had been an increase in seismicity at Machín in April. About 60 earthquakes were recorded daily (in comparison to the 1-10 earthquakes normally recorded); however, no surface changes were seen at that time at the volcano.

There was no further significant seismic activity until the first week of January 2008 when INGEOMINAS reported unusual seismicity at Machín during 6-8 January. Long-period earthquakes were detected S of the main lava dome. On 7 January, the volcano-tectonic seismic signals were occasionally felt and reported by nearby residents. The simultaneous occurrence of both types of seismic signals was unusual for Machín. Again, the activity diminished to the previous background levels until 9 November when INGEOMINAS reported a cluster of ~375 earthquakes, the majority of which were located towards the E sector and below the dome of the volcano with depths between 2.5 and 5 km. The earthquake activity occurred underneath the central and E parts of the lava dome complex in the summit caldera and fumarolic activity in the area increased. During 8-10 November 2008, Machín registered 1,210 volcano-tectonic earthquakes, 9 of which were M 2.5. According to news articles, approximately 400-450 people evacuated to shelters or other safe areas. There were also reports of landslides that blocked a highway.

Table 1 and figure 2 detail the local villages in proximity to Machín.

Table 1. Villages in proximity to Machín and the respective distances from the caldera (approximate). Taken from web sources such as Google Earth.

Village/town Crater distance (km) Direction
El Rodeo 96 NNW
Santa Marte 15 NNE
Aguacaliente 23 SSW
Toche 62 NW
Cajamarca 8 SSW
Ibague 17 ESE
Salento 24 NW
Circasia 31 WNW
Calarca 30 W
Figure (see Caption) Figure 2. A regional map showing population centers and paved and unpaved roads. Courtesy of INGEOMINAS.

On 10 November the seismic activity of the volcano diminished to background conditions. On 17 December INGEOMINAS reported that a swarm of 98 earthquakes occurred at Machín SE of the lava domes at depths of 2-6 km. The largest earthquake was M 2.6 at a depth of ~4 km.

There were two significant seismic events at Machín during 2009. On 31 July there was in increase in seismic activity, which consisted of ~200 events. Initially the increase was gradual, however, during the last hour the activity increased abruptly and included an earthquake of M 2.7. This subsided to a background level until early December when INGEOMINAS detected 54 earthquakes, some M ~ 1.3. Authorities issued a "Yellow" alert (Yellow; "changes in the behavior of volcanic activity") for Machín. The Tolima Regional Emergency Committee conducted evacuation training with local communities as a precaution.

INGEOMINAS reported that on 24 July 2010 a seismic crisis at Machín was characterized by volcano-tectonic earthquakes. An M 2.6 earthquake was located S of the main lava dome at a depth of ~4 km. The next day an M 4.1 volcano-tectonic earthquake occurred 0.8 km S of the main dome at a depth of ~3.9 km. The Yellow alert remained in effect following the increase in registered seismic activity in the area. On 29 July the number of volcano-tectonic events again increased; the earthquakes were a maximum M 1.7 and between 3 and 4 km depth, S of the main dome.

On 17 September 2010, INGEOMINAS again reported increased seismicity. About 140 volcano-tectonic earthquakes as large as M 1.85 were located S and SW of the main lava dome at depths of 2-4 km. On 4 October there was an M 3.5 tectonic earthquake located 0.37 km S of the main dome at a depth of ~4.14 km. Residents near the volcano felt this earthquake. The Alert Level remained at Yellow.

On 3 December 2010 about 340 volcano-tectonic earthquakes with low magnitudes were located SW of the main lava dome, at an average depth of 4 km. The largest event, a M 3.7 earthquake located SW of the dome at a depth of about 3.5 km, was felt by local residents. On 31 December INGEOMINAS reported a period of increased seismicity. A total of 346 volcano-tectonic events no stronger than M 2.1 were located S and SW of the main lava dome.

On 1 January 2011 seismicity again increased, and at the time of the report, 367 events had been detected. The low-magnitude events were located S and SW of the main dome at depths between 2.5 and 4.5 km. The largest event, M 2.3, was located S of the dome at a depth of about 3.3 km and felt by residents near the volcano and in the municipality of Cajamarca, 8 km SSW. On 13 January an increased number of earthquakes were located to the W and SW of the main dome at depth of 2.5-3.5 km. The largest event registered M ~2.6 and was reported to have been felt by residents near the volcano.

Since 1989, INGEOMINAS noted a gradual increase in seismicity has been following the events closely in order to report any changes on the volcano's activities (figure 3). All the local emergency committees were activated in the area near Machín volcano in addition to the regional emergency committees in Tolima District.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 3. Map showing potential hazards from hypothetical future activity at Machín. Thicknesses of potential ash fall to the W are shown (in cm) as modeled by computer-aided dispersion modeling (VAFTAD); PF stands for pyroclastic flow deposits. Adaped from INGEOMINAS (2007).

References. Méndez, RA; Cortés, GP; and Cepeda, H; [Calvache, ML, Project Chief], 2002, Evaluacíon de la Amenaza Volcánica Potencial del Cerro Machín (Departamento del Tolima, Colombia), Manizales, Sept. 2002, INGEOMINAS, 66 p. (in Spanish).

Méndez, RA, Cortés, GP, and Cepeda, H., 2007, Evaluacíon amenazas potencial de volcan Cerro Machín [Large map in Spanish taken from 2002 report of same name. Name in English, 'Evaluation of potenial hazards from volcan Cerro Machín'] Mapa Amenaza Volcán Machín, INGEOMINAS (URL: http://intranet.ingeominas.gov.co/manizales/images/5/55/MAPA_AMENAZA_VOLCAN_MACHIN.jpg)

Geologic Background. The small Cerro Machín stratovolcano lies at the southern end of the Ruiz-Tolima massif about 20 km WNW of the city of Ibagué. A 3-km-wide caldera is breached to the south and contains three forested dacitic lava domes. Voluminous pyroclastic flows traveled up to 40 km away during eruptions in the mid-to-late Holocene, perhaps associated with formation of the caldera. Late-Holocene eruptions produced dacitic block-and-ash flows that traveled through the breach in the caldera rim to the west and south. The latest known eruption of took place about 800 years ago.

Information Contacts: Instituto Colombiano de Geologia y Mineria (INGEOMINAS), Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Manizales, Manizales, Colombia; Relief Web (URL: https://reliefweb.int/); International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) (URL: http://www.ifrc.org/); Caracol Radio; El Tiempo:Portafolio (URL: http://columbiareports.com).


Poas (Costa Rica) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Poas

Costa Rica

10.2°N, 84.233°W; summit elev. 2697 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Photos of phreatic eruptions from acid lake; surrounding vegetation damaged by gases

Occasional, typically minor phreatic eruptions occurred at Poás through at least early February 2011 (BGVN 35:12). They emerged from the active crater lake, Lago Caliente. The Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) illuminated intervals of phreatic eruptions and relations on the chemistry of Lago Caliente's waters over a period of more than 30 years (figure 94). This report includes photos of phreatic eruptions in 2009, 2010, and early 2011, and reviews events through March 2011.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 94. Plots of the sulfur, chlorine, and fluorine concentrations, as well as the temperature, pH, and gas volumes in the Lago Caliente waters at Poás, with respect to time. The data on the time axis extends from early 1978 to late 2009. Arrows along the top indicate periods with frequent phreatic eruptions. Notice the low pH, often well below pH 1.5. Courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA.

Volcanic gases and associated condensate and rainfall led to increasing areal extent and degree of damage to vegetation in nearby areas. In studying the Lago Caliente's waters, Martinez and others (2011) found in solution a variety of oxo-anions of sulfur called polythionates (SnO6-2, where n can be 20 or larger), which they found to vary in concentration from undetectable to 8,000 mg/L. They considered polythionates to be "highly relevant for monitoring purposes at Poás, in particular because they may signal impending phreatic eruptions."

More on the 25 December 2009 phreatic eruption. A previous report (BGVN 35:12) discussed a phreatic eruption on 25 December 2009 but some further comments are worth adding. As previously noted (BGVN 35:12), "Steam and lake water mixed with sediment and blocks were ejected 550-600 m above Laguna Caliente and fell in the vicinity of the lake, within the crater." No mention was previously made of a 24 December 2009 phreatic eruption discussed by OVSICORI-UNA. It took place in the morning at 0808 and all erupted material fell back in the crater.

Photos taken on 25 December 2009 and recently posted on the Picasa website have come to our attention. The four photos on figure 95 come from a set of nine taken from the S rim. The earliest of the set depict a very tranquil lake with steaming at or near the dome (not shown here). The next photo, taken 129 seconds after that tranquil scene, portrays the advancing eruption (figure 95a). The subsequent two photos (figure 95b and c) captured the interval closest to the peak of the eruptive vigor.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 95. Four sequential photos taken looking N at Poás of a phreatic eruption from the center of Lago Caliente on 25 December 2009. The time intervals between the four photos was as follows: photos (a) to (b), 5 sec; photos (b) to (c), 5 sec; and photos (c) to (d), 11 sec. Photo descriptions below: (a) The earliest available photo of the eruption cloud, which, based on the next photo in this set, was clearly still emerging energetically. It advanced with the leading portions of the plume chiefly dark. At the plume's base, white steam clouds mask the lake. (b and c) The shots taken closest to the maximum point of the eruption's thrust phase, with dark material still conspicuous. White tufts expanded and began to cap most of the advancing jets. The clouds engulfing the base of the plume now contain more discolored zones. (d) As the plume evolves and the vigorous exhalative part of the eruption ends or wanes, a steam-rich cloud envelops the eruption cloud. Note the gray-colored rain falling out of the plume. Taken from Cindy and JM's Gallery (undated) on the Picasa photo sharing website (see References and Information Contacts below).

An exact assessment of the photos is complicated by several factors. There were shifts in the focal length of the lens (documented in camera metadata found on the website). Also, in detail, the camera's time record indicated 0252 hrs, clearly incorrect for this daylight scene. That problem is reconciled by a photo featured in the OVSICORI-UNA report, which showed a plume photo by another photographer at a stage nearly identical to figure 95b and the text indicated the eruption occurred at 0952 hrs local time.

An email response from Cindy Doire provided these comments about witnessing the phreatic eruption.

"We arrived at the volcano early in the morning. We were one of the first to arrive that day. Our group and a few other tourists were looking at it and NOTHING was happening. The people finished looking and started leaving that spot. It was just about 4 of us still there, when suddenly the volcano started to erupt. There was NO warning at all. Even the rangers were surprised. At the beginning, white steam (gas?) shot up, then black rock and dirt started exploding out. I believe that everything that shot up, fell back into the crater . . . the gas could be smelled and was strong . . .."

In an email to GVP regarding the 25 December 2009 eruption, Eliecer Duarte commented: "It seems that this [25 December 2009] eruption opened a more permanent vent at the bottom of the lake. Since that event the frequency of phreatic ones increased and remained like this for [a] year and a half. We still have dozens of smaller ones daily.

More on crater degassing. Field visits during 2010 and 2011 allowed scientists to see the expanding effects of Poás volcanic gases on vegetation (figures 96 and 97). Dry conditions resulted in winds carrying the gases considerable distances from the volcano. The area most affected was an elongate zone downwind of the active crater and extending ~4 km SW. Figure 97 portrays transitional zones with intermediate effects.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 96. A commercial airline pilot and amateur photographer took this and other photos of Poás on 28 April 2010. The active crater and its discolored lake (Lago Caliente) reside at the right-hand side of this shot. It is part of an elongate zone of barren rock stretching ~4 km across the otherwise lushly vegetated landscape. As is typical, the plume's orientation on this day lies directly over the barren zone. From "Len" (undated), (see Reference below).
Figure (see Caption) Figure 97. Oblique view highlighting the area to the S of Poás (note volcano's crater lakes, including the active "Lago Caliente") On color versions of this figure, the pink rhombuses show sites for collecting acid rain. Providencia is shown in the lower left. The crater lake at upper right, "Botos" is ~0.5 km across in the long direction but the scale on this image varies with distance towards the foreground. Courtesy E. Duarte, OVSICORI-UNA.

Starting just beyond the elongate zone of harsh effects, the areas of discolored vegetation had increased impact and areal extent. One such impacted area was a nature preserve called Providencia, which is seen in figure 97 to the left of Poás. Farther from the volcano lies Cerro Pelón (2.5 km distance and direction SW of the crater) , which also showed the effects of chemical burning from volcanic gases (figure 97).

In the past, activity centers have migrated within the crater. OVSICORI-UNA reported that, for at least the past year (ending March 2011), the points of degassing have been concentrated in the hot crater lake and dome (figure 98). The emanating steam and gases, often carried by wind, have affected areas up to several hundred meters around the crater (figures 96-98).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 98. The active crater at Poás, showing pronounced steam release both from fractures in the dome as well as from the lake's surface. Conditions like this (with more or less steam) often prevailed in recent times (including just a few seconds prior to the eruption sequence shown in figure 95). The crater lake (Lago Caliente) rests behind (N of) the dome and steam clouds. Courtesy E. Duarte, OVSICORI-UNA.

OVSICORI-UNA reported that through at least March 2011 small phreatic eruptions occurred daily at Lago Caliente. These eruptions sometimes only reached the lake's surface, but at other times reached a few meters above the lake, and occasionally, tens of meters above the lake. The majority of the erupted sediments fell back into the lake. The fine sediments sometimes remained suspended in the lake water and caused its gray color. The majority of eruptions occurred in the central part of the crater, with a few originating slightly more to the N or S of the center. Because of the phreatic activity and high temperature of the lake (57°C), strong evaporation occurred and plumes traveled long distances in the wind (figure 99).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 99. At Poás, a phreatic eruption at Lago Caliente reaching several meters high, in a manner typical of daily activity during recent months. View from the active crater's N side (opposite the viewpoint). Photo taken sometime in January 2011. Courtesy E. Duarte, OVSICORI-UNA.

A comparison of vegetation in the area between Cerro Pelón and Providencia (designated "F1" in figure 97) made during August 2010 to January 2011 found that most plant species were resistant at certain levels of acidification. However, when their tolerance thresholds were reached, the affected species decayed quickly and were sometimes unable to recover. Certain species, including eucalyptus, pine, alder, and cypress, were particularly sensitive to the volcanic gases. Minor effects from gases were observed on Cypress trees as far as 9 km SW of the emission source. OVSICORI-UNA reports contained several photos showing more details on the effects of acidic gases on vegetation. One of their later reports, from April 2011, discussed ongoing phreatic eruptions and dome temperature of 560°C.

References. Cindy and JM's Gallery, undated, "Poas volcano eruption, December 25th, 2009" [9 photos] Picassa (URL: https://picasaweb.google.com/cjmdoire); [includes camera-related metadata].

Len (Barfbag), undated, "Wednesday, April 28, 2010, Mt Poas, Costa Rica" ; in Viewsfrom the left seat, A look at the airline world ... ride along in the cockpit (URL: http://viewsfromtheleftseat.blogspot.com/2010/04/mt-poas-costa-rica.html)

Martínez, M., van Bergen, M.J., Fernández, E., and Takano, B., 2011, Polythionates monitoring at the acid crater lake of Poás Volcano, IAVCEI-COMMISSION OF VOLCANIC LAKES, CVL7 Workshop, Costa Rica, 10-19 March 2010, Online Abstracts volume (May 2011), p. 12 (URL: http://www.ulb.ac.be/sciences/cvl/)

Geologic Background. The broad vegetated edifice of Poás, one of the most active volcanoes of Costa Rica, contains three craters along a N-S line. The frequently visited multi-hued summit crater lakes of the basaltic-to-dacitic volcano are easily accessible by vehicle from the nearby capital city of San José. A N-S-trending fissure cutting the complex stratovolcano extends to the lower N flank, where it has produced the Congo stratovolcano and several lake-filled maars. The southernmost of the two summit crater lakes, Botos, last erupted about 7,500 years ago. The more prominent geothermally heated northern lake, Laguna Caliente, is one of the world's most acidic natural lakes, with a pH of near zero. It has been the site of frequent phreatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions since an eruption was reported in 1828. Eruptions often include geyser-like ejections of crater-lake water.

Information Contacts: E. Duarte and E. Fernández, Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Cindy Doire (address withheld by request).


Ranau (Indonesia) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Ranau

Indonesia

4.871°S, 103.925°E; summit elev. 1854 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Fish kill in April 2011 strikes hot-spring areas of intra-caldera lake

This report on Ranau, a Pleistocene caldera that lies along the Great Sumatran fault, is based on accounts of fish kills, including one on 4 April 2011. The fish died near hot springs in Lake Ranau, a large caldera lake, and their deaths were attributed to seismically induced H2S releases by the Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM). CVGHM reported the surface area of Lake Ranau to be ~127 km2, and noted that the Lake Ranau complex is geothermally active, with hot springs that emerge at the foot of Mount Seminung on the banks of Lake Ranau. In addition to the 2011 event, fish kills have been recorded in Lake Ranau (figure 1) for the past five decades (table 1).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 1. Photo of Lake Ranau with Mount Seminung in the background. Posted by blogger "masternewstoday" in May 2011.

Table 1. Previous fish kills in Lake Ranau reported during the past five decades. (Note that there is no mention of any correlation between seismicity and geochemical anomalies.) Courtesy of CVGHM.

Year Description
1962  Residents in Sende Simpang Village noted that the lake water became milky white in color and all of the fish died.
1993 One or more fish kills over 3 months.
1995 Small-scale fish kill accompanied by a rotten smell (presumably H2S).
1998 Large-scale fish kill occurred. According to the head of the village, the event began with turbulent water in Lake Ranau that lasted for approximately 30 minutes.

Reports stated that the 4 April 2011 fish kill was large in scale. According to the head of a nearby village, Sugih Sane, the event began with turbulent water in Lake Ranau that lasted for approximately 30 minutes. Local residents reported that the fish kill occurred during a relatively short time in portions of the lake surrounding hot springs. At the time of the incident, the water in the affected areas appeared milky white, and wind spread the smell of sulfur to surrounding areas.

Geochemistry. Scientists conducted field work near the three hot springs Kota Batu, Ujung, and Way Wahid during 16-19 April 2011. At that time they reported the following: No dead algae were found on the lake's surface. There was no smell of sulfur, the water was clear, and the water around the hot springs was bubbling and warm. * Dead fish were no longer present. The pH of the lake water was 7.74, and the temperature was 26.1°C. The water near the hot springs had a pH of 6.32-7.06, with a temperature of 47.8-62°C. The water of the river that empties into Lake Ranau (input) had a pH of 8.07-8.10, and the lake water discharge (output) had a pH of 7.86. The result of ambient gas examination showed no gases associated with magmatic gases, such as CH4, CO2, CO, and H2S, in the vicinity of the hot springs discharge. The degree to which the above measurements were anomalous was unstated.

Seismicity. Seismic data recorded during 16-20 April 2011 showed microearthquake activity around Lake Ranau. The earthquakes were located along a fault line oriented in the SE-NW direction along Lake Ranau, at depths of 0.6 and 10 km below the surface of the lake. The Berkelulusan location coincides with the location of the Kota Batu hot springs. Prior to the fish kill at Lake Ranau on 4 April, an M 5.1 earthquake was recorded on 29 March 2011 in Bengkulu, ~160 km W of Lake Ranau.

Cause of the fish kill. CVGHM concluded that, based on the results of the field work (location of dead fish near hot springs, sulfur smell carried by wind up to 3 km away, absence of dead algae, and changing color of the lake water to milky white during the event), the fish kill in Lake Ranau was caused by the release of H2S gas into the lake water, which caused imbalances in lake water chemistry. They said that hydrothermal gas was trapped over time and escaped to the surface after the pressure due to tectonic disturbances. CVGHM concluded that the M 5.1 earthquake in Bengkulu on 29 March 2011 led to increased pressure on the fault in the vicinity of Lake Ranau; then, H2S gas was released to the surface in the vicinity of the hot springs. According to CVGHM, the occurrence of microearthquakes is a result of the fault in the vicinity of Lake Ranau, and are neither dangerous nor destructive. However, CVGHM asked residents to report future fish kills to the local government.

Geologic Background. Ranau is an 8 x 13 km Pleistocene caldera partially filled by the crescent-shaped Lake Ranau. The caldera lies along the Great Sumatran Fault that extends the length of Sumatra. Incremental formation of the caldera culminated in the eruption of the voluminous Ranau Tuff about 0.55 million years ago. A morphologically young post-caldera stratovolcano, Gunung Semuning, was constructed within the SE side of the caldera to a height of more than 1,200 m above the lake surface. The volcano has not been mapped in sufficient detail to determine the age of its latest eruptions, although fish kills and sulfur smells in the late 19th and early 20th centuries may be related to volcanism.

Information Contacts: Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://vsi.esdm.go.id/); Masternewstoday (URL: http://hot-breaking-news-masternewstoday.blogspot.com).


Rincon de la Vieja (Costa Rica) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Rincon de la Vieja

Costa Rica

10.83°N, 85.324°W; summit elev. 1916 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Fumarolically active but non-eruptive through January 2011

Low-frequency earthquakes and tremor were reported at Rincón de la Vieja during the first half of 2008 (BGVN 33:07). Since then, Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) had issued intermittent reports of activity through January 2011. Those reports are summarized in the following sections, with much of the discussion centered around fumaroles and behavior of the geothermally warmed lake in the active crater. Occasional, typically small phreatic eruptions had occurred here in past years, for example in the 1990s (eg., BGVN 21:02, 21:03, 22:01, and 23:03) but were absent in the current reporting interval (last half of 2008 through January 2011).

August 2008. OVSICORI-UNA reported that the level of the lake was at a high level, with a bluish color, generated convection cells with evaporation, and had sulfur particles visible on it's surface. Sulfur deposition and fumarolic activity continued along the SW wall.

March 2009. In mid-March 2009, scientists visited the S and SW flank, collected samples, and noted some temperatures of 75-78°C. Because the visit occurred during the dry season, most areas encountered were dry. The scientists examined an area of acidification to the W of Von Seebach crater, ~3 km SW of the active crater. Strong winds common in that direction sometimes carried volcanic gases. Consequently, most of this narrow expanse only contained patches of grassland and shrubs that barely covered the rocky surface.

October 2009. OVSICORI-UNA reported that seismographic station RIN3, located ~5 km SW of the main crater, registered volcano-tectonic events and tremor lasting for minutes.

Weak ongoing fumarolic activity during 2010 through January 2011. OVSICORI-UNA reported that the level of the crater lake remained high during 2010, with constant evaporation. Geochemical, seismic, and deformation data did not show significant changes in physico-chemical parameters during 2010. The changing color of the lake, from blue to gray, was attributed to intense rains and fumarolic activity in the crater.

Later reporting. Reports during 2010 through at least January 2011 described fumarolic activity along the S and SW walls of the crater, with sulfur deposition and moderate gas discharge. The lake remained a gray color, with sulfur particles in suspension. Figure 15 shows a photo taken in April of the crater looking at the SW wall with fumarolic activity along with sulfur deposition. In April 2010, OVSICORI-UNA reported that the temperature of the lake was 49°C. A fumarole sometimes seen active along the N flank had stopped discharging gas.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 15. Photo of the active crater lake of Rincón de la Vieja on 29 April 2010 showing yellow sulfur deposits and fumarolic activity along the SW wall of the crater. This kind of activity was typical throughout the reporting interval (last half of 2008 through January 2011). Photo by E. Fernandez, OVSICORI-UNA.

OVSICORI-UNA reported that 2010 was unusual in that four domestic volcanoes were active: Arenal, Poás, Turrialba, and Rincón de la Vieja. Irazú was comparatively inactive (see separate report in this issue of the Bulletin).

Geologic Background. Rincón de la Vieja, the largest volcano in NW Costa Rica, is a remote volcanic complex in the Guanacaste Range. The volcano consists of an elongated, arcuate NW-SE-trending ridge constructed within the 15-km-wide early Pleistocene Guachipelín caldera, whose rim is exposed on the south side. Sometimes known as the "Colossus of Guanacaste," it has an estimated volume of 130 km3 and contains at least nine major eruptive centers. Activity has migrated to the SE, where the youngest-looking craters are located. The twin cone of Santa María volcano, the highest peak of the complex, is located at the eastern end of a smaller, 5-km-wide caldera and has a 500-m-wide crater. A Plinian eruption producing the 0.25 km3 Río Blanca tephra about 3,500 years ago was the last major magmatic eruption. All subsequent eruptions, including numerous historical eruptions possibly dating back to the 16th century, have been from the prominent active crater containing a 500-m-wide acid lake located ENE of Von Seebach crater.

Information Contacts: E. Fernández, W. Sáenz, E. Duarte, M. Martínez, S. Miranda, F. Robichaud, T. Marino, M. Villegas, and J. Barquero, Observatorio Vulcanologico Sismologica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/).


Sheveluch (Russia) — April 2011 Citation iconCite this Report

Sheveluch

Russia

56.653°N, 161.36°E; summit elev. 3283 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted)


Ongoing dome growth into early 2011; and pyroclastic flows of 27 October 2010

This report first describes activity seen at Shiveluch during December 2010-March 2011. Data from that interval included several ash plumes visible as they blew to over 100 km from the volcano. Thermal imagery analysis showed the character of the dome and the path of pyroclastic-flow deposits during that interval. After that, we provide a follow-up to the 27 October 2010 eruption (BGVN 35:11), adding some previously unmentioned details. That eruption destroyed the dome's SE sector and generated pyroclastic flows.

During December 2010-March 2011, KVERT reported that Shiveluch both underwent moderate seismicity and emitted bright thermal anomalies conspicuous in satellite imagery (figure 27). Details of significant explosions and ash plumes during that time appear on table 10. Figure 28 shows a photo with the distant skyline dominated by a long Shiveluch ash plume.

Table 10. An inexhaustive synopsis of significant plumes at Shiveluch visible on satellite imagery from December 2010 through 26 March 2011 (times and dates are UTC). Courtesy KVERT.

Date Comments
03 Dec 2010 Ash plumes drifted 322 km SE.
14 Dec 2010 Ash plume drifted 230 km NE, 2-km-long pyroclastic flow.
23-24 Dec 2010 Ash plumes rose to altitudes as high as 4.5 km
02 Jan 2011 Ash plumes rose to altitudes as high as 8 km and drifted 92 km S.
18 Jan 2011 Ash plumes rose to altitudes as high as 7 km and drifted W.
26 Jan 2011 Ash plume drifted 54 km S.
31 Jan-1 Feb, 4 Feb 2011 Ash plume drifted 120 km NE, E. Ash plumes rose 7.5 km
23-24 Feb 2011 Ash plumes altitudes below 6 km and drifted 220 km SE (figure 28).
26-27 Feb 2011 Ash plumes drifted over 140 km N.
10, 16 Mar 2011 Ash plumes drifted 312 km W, NW.
18-20 Mar 2011 Ash plumes drifted 373 km SE, N.
26 Mar 2011 Ash plumes drifted 57 km SE.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 27. Satellite thermal anomalies recorded at Shiveluch during December 2010-March 2011. Data from KB GS RAS, with cooperation from Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO).
Figure (see Caption) Figure 28. A panoramic photo showing a long ash plume from Shiveluch, seen in the distant parts of the photo (volcano is on the left). Photo taken on 24 February 2011 from N slope of Kliuchevskoi volcano by Yuri Demyanchuk.

More on the 27 October 2010PFs. As previously reported, an explosive eruption on 27 October 2010 (BGVN 35:11) vented at the dome and destroyed its SE portion, generating pyroclastic flows laden with many fragments of dome material (figure 29). The associated eruptive plume extended more than 1,500 km from the volcano. The pyroclastic flows traveled SSE in a radial direction, as far as 20 km from the source.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 29. Two images showing the lava dome of Shiveluch. Photo (a) was taken before the eruption, on 7 October 2010. Photo (b) was taken a few days after the eruption, on 2 November 2010 and discloses enormous losses to the mass of the dome toward the SE (free face). The large ash clouds from the dome document ongoing explosions, processes associated with continued rebuilding of the lava dome. Both photos courtesy of Yuri Demyanchuk.

Near the dome, visiting scientists found agglomerate deposits of fragmental dome material spread widely down the SE slope. The character of the deposits was similar to debris avalanches, since so much dome material suddenly traveled down slope. The pyroclastic flow deposits retraced numerous upslope tributaries along the Kabeku River. The deposits filled small valleys and other low-lying areas, leveling landscapes that had prior to the eruption been rough (figure 30).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 30. Photo showing the fresh pyroclastic flow deposits filling Bekesh river valley to the point where the valley had become nearly flat in transverse profile. In the background appears the steaming, Shiveluch with its recently broken lava dome. Photo taken 2 November 2010 by Alexander Ovsyannikov.

Figures 31a and b, satellite images, illustrate the trail of hot material descending to the S. They formed a large, complex, and widely distributed deposit following the recent collapse of the lava dome. A sub-circular area about ~4 km in diameter at about 9-14 km distance from the dome may reflect denser deposition (figure 31a). The images make clear that pyroclastic flow deposits descended yet farther, leaving dense, thermally radiant tracks over narrower valleys trending to the SE. The images are from ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer). Figure 31b shows the flow's heat signature as measured in thermal infrared energy. The white area at the lava dome was very hot, while the red areas on the edge of the flow were merely warmer than the surrounding snow.

Figure (see Caption) Figure 31. (a) False-color ASTER satellite image of Shiveluch showing the visible-wavelength information that discloses the remnants of the 27 October 2010 pyroclastic flow. Image taken 25 February 2011. (b) The hot pyroclastic flow appears in this ASTER image made using thermal infrared wave lengths. The white area at the lava dome is very hot, while the red areas on the edge of the flow are simply warmer than the surrounding snow. Image taken on 25 January 2011. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

Fieldwork in the distal area revealed that the most powerful pyroclastic flow went into the headwaters of two narrow valleys, then merged into a single stream down into the Kabeku Valley river almost to its confluence with the Bekesh river (5 km N of the Kluchi-Ust'-Kamchatsk road, figures 32 and 33).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 32. Images (a) and (b) show Shiveluch deposits of pyroclastic flows in the Bekesh river valley. Note person in distance in center of photo for scale. Courtesy Yuri Demyanchuk and Alexander Manevich.
Figure (see Caption) Figure 33. Results of pyroclastic surges, with small trees and shrubs knocked over and stripped of bark. Trees and shrubs showed signs of scorching up to 3-4 m high. Deposits of pyroclastic surges were found on the sides of the Bekesh river valley. Image taken 2 November 2010. Courtesy of Yuri Demyanchuk.

Water in the bed of the Bekesh river ran down the same path as thick pyroclastic flows and continued to be fed by melting snow on the upper slopes. Water also seeped through the loose pyroclastic flow deposit, resulting in large amounts of steam escaping at the surface in the form of fumaroles, degassing pipes, and zones of jetting emissions. This created the impression that the river water was boiling; on its surface rose a wall of steam (figure 34). Walking over the pyroclastic flow deposit was difficult and potentially dangerous, since the deposit's upper portion remained hot and gas saturated (figure 34b).

Figure (see Caption) Figure 34. At Shiveluch, fresh pyroclastic-flow deposits occurring on the Bekesh river. (a) Steam and gas pervade the atmosphere as the river makes its way across the fresh pyroclastic-flow deposits. (b) The still-hot deposits emitting abundant steam and gas. Photos courtesy of Yuri Demyanchuk.

Reference. Ovsyannikov, A., Manevich, A., 2010, Eruption Shiveluch in October 2010, Bulletin of Kamchatka Regional Association (Educational-Scientific Center); Earth Sciences (in Russian), IV&S FEB RAS, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 2010, vol. 2, no. 16, ISSN 1816-5532 (Online).

Geologic Background. The high, isolated massif of Sheveluch volcano (also spelled Shiveluch) rises above the lowlands NNE of the Kliuchevskaya volcano group. The 1,300 km3 andesitic volcano is one of Kamchatka's largest and most active volcanic structures, with at least 60 large eruptions during the Holocene. The summit of roughly 65,000-year-old Stary Shiveluch is truncated by a broad 9-km-wide late-Pleistocene caldera breached to the south. Many lava domes occur on its outer flanks. The Molodoy Shiveluch lava dome complex was constructed during the Holocene within the large open caldera; Holocene lava dome extrusion also took place on the flanks of Stary Shiveluch. Widespread tephra layers from these eruptions have provided valuable time markers for dating volcanic events in Kamchatka. Frequent collapses of dome complexes, most recently in 1964, have produced debris avalanches whose deposits cover much of the floor of the breached caldera.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Institute Volcanolohy and Seismology Far East Division, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FED RAS), Kamchatka Branch of the Geophysical Service, Russian Academy of Sciences (KB GS RAS) (URL: http://www.emsd.iks.ru/index-e.php). 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/); Y. Demyanchuk, A. Ovsyannikov, A. Manevich (IVS FED RAS); Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of the U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667, USA (URL: http://www.avo.alaska.edu/); Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Tokyo, Japan (URL: http://ds.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vaac/data/); NASA Earth Observatory (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/).

Atmospheric Effects

The enormous aerosol cloud from the March-April 1982 eruption of Mexico's El Chichón persisted for years in the stratosphere, and led to the Atmospheric Effects section becoming a regular feature of the Bulletin. Descriptions of the initial dispersal of major eruption clouds remain with the individual eruption reports, but observations of long-term stratospheric aerosol loading will be found in this section.

Atmospheric Effects (1980-1989)  Atmospheric Effects (1995-2001)

Special Announcements

Special announcements of various kinds and obituaries.

Special Announcements  Obituaries

Misc Reports

Reports are sometimes published that are not related to a Holocene volcano. These might include observations of a Pleistocene volcano, earthquake swarms, or floating pumice. Reports are also sometimes published in which the source of the activity is unknown or the report is determined to be false. All of these types of additional reports are listed below by subject.

Additional Reports  False Reports