Frequent historical eruptions at México's Volcán de Colima (Volcán Fuego) date back to the 16th century and include vulcanian and phreatic explosions, lava flows, large debris avalanches, and pyroclastic flows. The latest eruptive episode began in January 2013. Extensive activity in 2015 included near-constant ash plumes with extensive ashfall, lava flows, and pyroclastic flows (BGVN 41:01). The eruption continued throughout 2016 until the last ash-bearing explosion was reported on 7 March 2017. This report covers the activity through June 2017. Most of the information for this report was gathered from the Unidad Estatal de Protección Civil de Colima (UEPCC), the Centro Universitario de Estudios e Investigaciones de Vulcanologia, Universidad de Colima (CUEIV-UdC), and the Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC).

Colima was very active from January through April 2016 with hundreds of ash emissions, and a slow-growing lava dome that was first observed on 19 February. Activity decreased during May-September, although multiple explosions with ash plumes still took place most weeks during the period. On 30 September, the lava dome overflowed the crater rim, and sent a slow-moving lava flow and incandescent material down the SW flank. The lava flow continued to grow, reaching over 2 km in length by the end of October. A second lava flow appeared in mid-November, and advanced 1.7 km by early December. Strong ash-bearing explosions during December 2016-January 2017 sent plumes to heights of 4-6 km above the crater. Activity decreased during the second half of February; the last ash-bearing explosion was reported on 7 March 2017. Decreasing seismicity and minor landslides were reported through June 2017 with no further eruptive activity.

Incandescent activity during explosions in January 2016 sent glowing blocks down the flanks of Colima along with spectacular lightning in the ash plumes (figure 116). Ash emissions continued at Colima at a very high rate of multiple daily events, similar to December 2015 (figure 117). The Washington VAAC issued multiple advisories nearly every day during the month with information based on satellite imagery, wind data, webcam images, and notices from the México City Meteorological Watch Office (MWO). The ash plumes rose to altitudes of 4.3-6.7 km and most commonly drifted N or E. They generally drifted a few tens of kilometers before dissipating, but a few were still visible as far as 200 km from the summit.

Figure 116. Eruption of ash plume and incandescent material at Colima on 3 January 2016. Courtesy of Volcano Discovery.

Figure 117. Ash eruption at Colima on 10 January 2016. Image from the Webcams de México Colima webcam located at the Laguna de Carrizalillos in Comala, about 25 km SW of the summit.

Multiple daily ash advisories from the Washington VAAC continued during 1-9 February. They resumed on 14 February, and were intermittent for the rest of the month with similar altitudes and drift directions as those observed during January, but at a slightly lower frequency, decreasing towards the end of the month. On 19 February, CUEIV-UdC researcher Nick Varley observed a lava dome emerging from the floor of the crater (figure 118) during a helicopter overflight. It was estimated to be 25-30 m in diameter and 10 m high inside the almost 300-m-diameter, 50-m-deep summit crater. By 29 February, the dome had increased in size (figure 119), and fumarolic activity had also increased on the SE side of the summit crater.

Figure 118. A new lava dome in the summit crater of Colima on 19 February 2016. Courtesy of CUEIV-UdC (http://www.ucol.mx/enterate/nota.php?docto=2473).

Figure 119. The lava dome at Colima photographed on 29 February 2016 was noticeably larger than when first photographed ten days earlier. Courtesy of SkyAlert (2 March 2016).

Ash plume heights during March 2016 were slightly lower than during February (4.0-6.1 km altitude). Most of the plumes continued to drift NE or SE, and most dissipated within 50 km. During the first week of April, scientists observed fresh ashfall covering the dome at the center of the crater, which had not changed significantly since the previous overflight at the end of February. Persistent ash plumes continued throughout April with a three-minute-long ash emission recorded on 28 April by Colima's webcam.

The frequency of ash emissions decreased during May 2016 and further still during June 2016, when advisories from the Washington VAAC only appeared during five days of the month (1, 4, 13, 23, 30); the plume heights remained similar to previous months, except for a 16 May plume observed moving ENE at 7.6 km. After a two week pause, ash emissions resumed on 17 July with plume heights ranging from 4.3 to 7.3 km altitude through the end of the month. During the second half of August and for part of September, intermittent plumes did not exceed 6.1 km altitude, and dissipated within a few tens of kilometers of the summit.

The Unidad Estatal de Protección Civil de Colima reported that on 26 September seismicity at Colima increased, and incandescence appeared at the crater. On 27 September, small landslides originating from the growing lava dome traveled 100 m down the S flank. By the evening of 30 September, the webcam showed intense activity and crater incandescence as lava spilled over the crater rim and flowed down the SW flank (figure 120). An intense thermal anomaly was visible in short-wave infrared satellite images. An ash plume detected on 1 October in satellite images drifted almost 40 km S and SW; the webcam recorded explosions and pyroclastic flows down the flanks. The OMI instrument on the Aura satellite also recorded significant SO₂ plumes drifting W and SW from Colima on 30 September and 1 October (figure 121).

Figure 120. Intense activity at Colima during the late evening of 30 September 2016 (2014 CST), as a new lava flow emerged from the summit crater and moved down the SW flank. Image from the Webcams de México Colima webcam located at the Laguna de Carrizalillos in Comala, about 25 km SW of the summit.

Figure 121. Sulfur dioxide plumes from Colima were captured by the OMI instrument on the Aura satellite on 30 September (upper) and 1 October 2016 (lower). Colima is on the left (west) side, near the coast. The other SO2 plume in central Mexico on the 1 October is from Popocatépetl. The red pixels indicate Dobson Unit (DU) values greater than 2. DU are a measure of molecular density of SO2 in the atmosphere. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

According to news articles (Noticieros Televisa), during 29 September-1 October gas-and-ash plumes rose 4 km and caused ashfall in nearby areas, including La Becererra, La Yerbabuena, San Antonio, and El Jabali in the municipality of Comala (26 km SW), Montitlán in the municipality of Cuauhtémoc (34 km NW), and Juan Barragan in Tonila, Jalisco (14 km SE). On 1 October the Colima State government stated that the communities of La Yerbabuena (80 people) and La Becerrera (230 people) were preemptively evacuated, and an exclusion zone was extended to 12 km on the SW side. A news article noted that Juan Barragan was also evacuated.

The lava flow continued down the flank with incandescent rockfalls (figure 122) and occasional pyroclastic flows; by 4 October it had reached the base of the cone. The volume of the lava dome was estimated to have exceeded 1.2 million cubic meters (figure 123). By 8 October 2016, the lava flow was about 2,000 m long and 270 m wide at its front at the base of the cone. The Washington VAAC reported a strong hotspot consistent with the lava flow in satellite imagery on 9 October. On 13 October, they noted an ash plume that had drifted over 200 km W from the summit. Strong, multi-pixel, daily thermal alerts were issued from MODVOLC during 1-14 October. On 21 October, UEPCC reported that lava continued to flow down the S flank. It was 2.3 km long, 320 m wide, and had an estimated volume of 21 million m³.

Figure 122. A lava flow descends the S flank of Colima on 2 October 2016. Image by Raúl Arámbula, courtesy of Red Sismologica Telemetrica del Estado de Colima-Centro Universitario de Estudios e Investigaciones de Vulcanologia-Universidad de Colima (RESCO-CUEIV-UdeC).

Figure 123. The lava dome overflowing the summit crater at Colima on 5 October 2016. Image by Raúl Arámbula, courtesy of RESCO-CUIEV-UdeC.

Multiple ash plumes rose to altitudes of 5.5-8.2 km and drifted 25-40 km S, SW, and W during 2-4 October. Ashfall was reported in areas on the S and SW flanks. Ash explosions were also frequent throughout the rest of October, with plumes rising to altitudes of 4.3-7 km on many days (figure 124), until they ceased on 4 November for several weeks.

Figure 124. Ash explosion at Colima on 9 October 2016. Steam in the foreground is from the lava flow travelling down the SW flank. Image from the Webcams de México Colima webcam located at the Laguna de Carrizalillos in Comala, about 25 km SW of the summit.

Effusive activity increased again at the very end of October 2016 with the growth of a new lava dome inside the summit crater. By 17 November, a new lava flow was also visible on the S flank (figure 125); it was reported to be about 500 m long by 20 November. After intermittent MODVOLC thermal alerts during late October and early November, they intensified with daily multi-pixel alerts between 15 November and 1 December.

Figure 125. A new lava flow on the S flank of Colima on 17 November 2016. Image from the Webcams de México Colima webcam located at the Laguna de Carrizalillos in Comala, about 25 km SW of the summit.

During 26-28 November 2016, a brief episode of ash emissions sent plumes to 4.9-5.5 km altitude that drifted W, N, and NE as far as 75 km before dissipating. Observations of Colima made on 5 December by UEPCC during a helicopter overflight indicated that the lava flow on the S flank was slowing its advance, and had reached about 1,700 m in length (figure 126).

Figure 126. The lava flow on the S flank of Colima had reached 1.7 km in length on 5 December 2016. Courtesy of UEPCC.

A new series of strong explosions with abundant ash emissions began on 7 December that continued through the end of the month. Multiple daily ash emissions appeared in both the webcam and satellite imagery. The plume on 8 December rose to 7.3 km and extended about 185 km NE of the summit near Lago de Chapala before dissipating. Incandescence during the explosions was visible at night, and glowing blocks were common on the upper flanks.

Ash clouds from multiple emissions were observed drifting W to WSW on 14 December at altitudes from 6.1 to 7.9 km (about 4 km above the summit). These plumes were visible 370 km WSW of the summit the next day. Plumes rose as high as 9.1 km altitude on 15 December, and spread N and NW. A series of strong, multiple daily explosions during 16-18 December included some of the strongest explosions since July 2015 (figure 127). Many of the multiple daily explosions during 19-31 December had plumes rising over 7 km in altitude and drifting over 100 km from the summit before dissipating. MODVOLC thermal alerts appeared on 13 days during December 2016.

Figure 127. A strong explosion at Colima on 18 December 2016. Image from the Webcams de México Colima webcam located at the Laguna de Carrizalillos in Comala, about 25 km SW of the summit.

Frequent strong explosive activity continued during January 2017. For the first three weeks of the month, the multiple daily plumes rose to altitudes of 4.6-7.6 km, drifting in multiple directions, some as far as 135 km. The UEPCC reported that at 0027 on 18 January a moderate-to-large explosion ejected incandescent material as far as 2 km onto the W, SW, SE, and N flanks. Based on webcam and satellite images, the México City MWO, and pilot observations, the Washington VAAC reported that during 18-24 January ash plumes rose to altitudes of 4.1-6.7 km and drifted in multiple directions. On 19 January, strong explosions were recorded by the webcam and noted by the Jalisco Civil Protection Agency (figure 128); they also reported ashfall in Comala and Cuauhtémoc. A strong thermal anomaly was identified in satellite images. Remnant ash clouds from the explosions were centered about 350 km SE on 20 January. A large ash plume rose to an altitude of 10.7 km on 23 January and drifted NE; several plumes that rose to over 7 km altitude were reported through the end of January. MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued on 11 days during January, but no further alerts appeared through June 2017.

Figure 128. Eruption at Colima at 0431 on 19 January 2017. Courtesy of Sergio Tapiro.

The CUEIV-UdC reported that a large explosion at 1732 on 3 February 2017 generated an ash plume that rose 6 km above the crater rim and drifted SSW (figure 129). The Washington VAAC reported the plume at 7.6 km altitude (3.7 km above the crater) shortly before midnight on 4 February. The CUEIV-UdC also noted that a small pyroclastic flow traveled down the E flank. Their report stated that the internal crater was about 250 m in diameter and 50-60 m deep; previous lava domes had been destroyed in late September and mid-November 2016.

Figure 129. An explosion at Colima on 3 February 2017 caused an ash plume that the Universidad de Colima reported as rising to six km above the crater, drifting SSW. A small pyroclastic flow descended the E flank. Image from the Webcams de México Colima webcam located at the Laguna de Carrizalillos in Comala, about 25 km SW of the summit.

A brief period of low-intensity explosions during 10-16 February 2017 generated ash plumes reported by the Washington VAAC at 4-5.2 km altitude. There were no further aviation alerts issued during February. According to CUEIV-UdC, a few low-intensity explosions occurred during 3-16 March. The ash plume on 7 March rose about 2 km above the crater and drifted SW. During an overflight in the middle of March, researchers from CUEIV-UdC noted degassing from small explosion craters on the floor of the main crater; there was no evidence of effusive activity or growth of a new dome. After the middle of March, seismicity steadily decreased; CUEIV-UdC reported landslides every week through June, but no additional ash emissions were reported.

The MIROVA radiative power plot of the MODIS thermal anomaly data clearly shows the thermal activity at Colima during September 2016-February 2017 (figure 130).

Figure 130. MIROVA log radiative power data from MODIS thermal anomaly satellite information clearly shows the strong thermal anomalies from the lava flows at Colima during September 2016-February 2017. The thermal anomalies shown in black after February 2017 are not located on the edifice and are not related to volcanic activity. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Geologic Background. The Colima volcanic complex is the most prominent volcanic center of the western Mexican Volcanic Belt. It consists of two southward-younging volcanoes, Nevado de Colima (the 4320 m high point of the complex) on the north and the 3850-m-high historically active Volcán de Colima at the south. A group of cinder cones of late-Pleistocene age is located on the floor of the Colima graben west and east of the Colima complex. Volcán de Colima (also known as Volcán Fuego) is a youthful stratovolcano constructed within a 5-km-wide caldera, breached to the south, that has been the source of large debris avalanches. Major slope failures have occurred repeatedly from both the Nevado and Colima cones, and have produced a thick apron of debris-avalanche deposits on three sides of the complex. Frequent historical eruptions date back to the 16th century. Occasional major explosive eruptions (most recently in 1913) have destroyed the summit and left a deep, steep-sided crater that was slowly refilled and then overtopped by lava dome growth.

Information Contacts: Unidad Estatal de Protección Civil de Colima (UEPCC), Roberto Esperón 1170 Col. de los Trabajadores, C.P. 28020 (URL: http://www.proteccioncivil.col.gob.mx/); Centro Universitario de Estudios e Investigaciones de Vulcanologia (CUEIV-UdC), Universidad de Colima, Colima, Col. 28045, México; Centro Universitario de Estudios Vulcanologicos y Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad de Colima, Avenida Universidad 333, Colima, Col., 28045 México (URL: http://portal.ucol.mx/cueiv/); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS OSPO, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: www.ospo.noaa.gov/Products/atmosphere/vaac, archive at: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/archive.html); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: http://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.html); Webcams de México (URL: http://www.webcamsdemexico.com/); Tom Pfeiffer, Volcano Discovery (URL: http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/); SkyAlert, Twitter (@SkyAlertMx) (URL: https://twitter.com/SkyAlertMx/status/705188862318882816); Sergio Tapiro, Twitter (@tapirofoto); Noticieros Televisa (URL: http://noticeros.televisa.com).

Karymsky volcano on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula has a lengthy eruptive history based on both radiocarbon data (back to about 6600 BCE) and historical observations (back to 1771). Much of the volcanic cone is surrounded by lava flows less than 200 years old. The most recent activity, consisting of frequent ash explosions and a few lava flows deposited on the flanks, has been ongoing for several decades. The most recent previous report described numerous ash explosions, persistent thermal anomalies, and moderate seismic activity through 2014 (BGVN 40:09). This report covers similar activity from January 2015 through May 2017. Information was compiled from the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), the Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and several sources of satellite data.

Ash-bearing explosions and thermal anomalies characterized activity throughout 2015, beginning with an explosion on 19 January. Ash plumes were common through early March 2016, after which only steam-and-gas emissions and occasional thermal anomalies were noted, although fresh ash deposits were observed near the volcano in the second half of March. A brief episode of explosive activity during 5-8 October 2016 produced low-level ash plumes that drifted for hundreds of kilometers. No additional activity was reported through May 2017.

Activity during 2015. An explosive event at Karymsky on 19 January 2015 signaled a return to activity after a few months of quiet. The ash plume from the explosion extended 50 km SE, and the NASA Earth Observatory captured a satellite image showing trace ash deposits from the event trending SE across the snow-covered landscape (figure 34). Ashfall deposits were seen on 1 March (10-15 km E and SE) and 7 March.

Figure 34. A streak of dark ash extends SE from Karymsky's summit amidst a backdrop of snow on 18 January 2015 (UTC). The Operational Land Imager (OLI) aboard the Landsat 8 satellite acquired this natural color satellite image. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

Throughout the year, KVERT reported multiple thermal anomalies and ash plumes each month (table 8). The Tokyo VAAC issued 192 aviation alerts during the year, and the MODVOLC system reported eight thermal alerts in January, one in July, and two in August. Ash plume altitudes ranged from 2.1 to 7 km. Continuous ash emissions were noted during 16 and 29-30 July. The ash plume observed in satellite data on 17 July was 8 km long and 5 km wide. Volcanologists observed multiple explosions during 21-22 July, and helicopter pilots in the area reported explosions on 28 July that then lasted for several days (figure 35). Large plumes were also noted during December; on 22 December one was 8 km long and 6 km wide, and on 25 December one was 56 km long and 6 km wide. The highest altitude plumes were reported at 7 km drifting N on 16 and 20 November 2015 by the Tokyo VAAC. Ash plumes drifted in various directions, and were observed as far as 250 km before dissipating.

Table 8. Summary by month of ash plumes and thermal anomalies reported for Karymsky during 2015. Details include dates of thermal anomalies and ash plumes, maximum plume altitude in kilometers, distance in kilometers of ash plume drift, and direction of drift. Multiple thermal anomalies on a given date are shown in parentheses- 23(4)-after the date. 'Date: 7/8' means time zone boundaries presented different reported days for Kamchatka time (KST) and Universal Time (UTC). Sources are KVERT and Tokyo VAAC for ash plume data; KVERT and MODVOLC for thermal data.

Figure 35. Ash plume from an explosion at Karymsky on 30 July 2015. Photo by E. Kalacheva, IVS FEB RAS, courtesy of KVERT.

Activity during January 2016-April 2017. Activity was variable at Karymsky during 2016 (table 9). The Tokyo VAAC issued 132 aviation notices. Ash plumes and thermal anomalies were most frequent during January and February, with over twenty instances of each during February. The plume heights during February exceeded 6 km altitude four times, with the highest plume of the year on 20 February at 7.6 km altitude. Near-continuous ash emissions during the last week of February resulted in satellite observations of ash deposits around the volcano at the end of the month and during the first few days of March (figure 36). Activity decreased significantly during March, although KVERT noted fresh ash deposits again during 18-25 March. Except for thermal anomalies noted on 1 and 6 April, only steam-and-gas emissions were reported; KVERT lowered the Aviation Alert Level from Orange to Yellow (on a four-color scale) at the end of the month. From May to July, KVERT reported a thermal anomaly once each month. Steam-and-gas emissions were the only activity reported in August, and on 2 September, they lowered the Alert Level from Yellow to Green.

Table 9. Summary by month of ash plumes and thermal anomalies reported for Karymsky during 2016. Details include dates of thermal anomalies and ash plumes, maximum plume altitude in kilometers, distance in kilometers of ash plume drift, and direction of drift. Sources are KVERT and Tokyo VAAC for ash plume data; KVERT and MODVOLC for thermal data.

Figure 36. Steam plume from Karymsky on 21 February 2016, and abundant fresh ashfall around the volcano from recent ash emissions. Photo by E. Nenasheva, courtesy of KVERT.

After six months of quiet, the Tokyo VAAC reported an ash plume on 5 (UTC)/6 (KST) October at 2.4 km altitude extending SE. Aviation alerts were issued through 8 October 2016. Although residing at a fairly low altitude (2.4 km), the plume observed in satellite imagery during 7-8 October was visible in satellite imagery drifting 390 km E and SE before dissipating. KVERT briefly raised the Alert Level to Yellow and then to Orange on 7 and 8 October, and then back to Yellow on 19 October. Three weak thermal anomalies appeared in October and one in November; KVERT lowered the Alert Level to Green on 25 November. Karymsky remained at Alert Level Green through May 2017 with no further reports issued from KVERT or the Tokyo VAAC.

Geologic Background. Karymsky, the most active volcano of Kamchatka's eastern volcanic zone, is a symmetrical stratovolcano constructed within a 5-km-wide caldera that formed during the early Holocene. The caldera cuts the south side of the Pleistocene Dvor volcano and is located outside the north margin of the large mid-Pleistocene Polovinka caldera, which contains the smaller Akademia Nauk and Odnoboky calderas. Most seismicity preceding Karymsky eruptions originated beneath Akademia Nauk caldera, located immediately south. The caldera enclosing Karymsky formed about 7600-7700 radiocarbon years ago; construction of the stratovolcano began about 2000 years later. The latest eruptive period began about 500 years ago, following a 2300-year quiescence. Much of the cone is mantled by lava flows less than 200 years old. Historical eruptions have been vulcanian or vulcanian-strombolian with moderate explosive activity and occasional lava flows from the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, (IVS FEB RAS), 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/eng/); Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), 1-3-4 Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan (URL: http://ds.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vaac/data/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Earth Observatory, EOS Project Science Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/).

Hawaii's Kilauea volcano continues the long-term eruptive activity that began in 1983 with lava flows from the East Rift Zone (ERZ) and a convecting lava lake inside Halema'uma'u crater. The US Geological Survey's (USGS) Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) has been monitoring and researching the volcano for over a century since its founding in 1912. HVO provided quarterly reports of activity for July-December 2016, which are summarized below.

Summary of July-December 2016 activity. Activity at Kilauea during the second half of 2016 was consistent with long-term trends of summit inflation punctuated by DI (Deflation-Inflation) events and a slowly rising average lava lake level inside Halema?uma?u crater. Two explosive events prompted by rockfalls into the lake sent spatter high enough to reach the Halema?uma?u rim; a small overflow at the crater occurred in October, the first since April-May 2015.

Pu‘u ‘O‘o activity continued with little change except for the steady advance of the episode 61g lava flow towards the coast. The pahoehoe front reached the Emergency Access Road near the coast on 25 July and cascaded slowly over the seacliff into the ocean on 26 July just after midnight. It was the first time since August 2013 that lava from Pu‘u ‘O‘o entered the sea. A growing lava delta of about 10 hectares (25 acres) at the Kamokuna entry was the focus of attention by visitors until most of it collapsed into the sea on 31 December 2016.

Activity at Halema'uma'u. Eruptive activity at Halema'uma'u crater was typical during July-December 2016, with a slightly elevated lake level for the last quarter of the year. The lava lake circulation pattern continued in the usual N-S direction, with occasional shifts due to short-lived spattering in areas other than the normal Southeast sink. The lake level rose and fell in concert with the regular summit DI events. On 7 September, the lake level rose to the level of the old rim prior to the April/May 2015 crater overflow, 8 m below the current rim (figure 267).

Figure 267. Halema'uma'u lava lake at Kilauea on 7 September 2016 at 1842 HST when the surface level was at the level of the old crater rim, 8 m below the current rim. Photo by M. Patrick, courtesy of Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for July-September 2016).

The lowest lake level of the period was 55 m below the floor of Halema'uma'u on 6 October; the lake reached its highest level when it overflowed the rim on 15 October. This was the highest lake level since the overflows in late April to early May 2015, and it covered a small area of about 5,000 m² of the Halema'uma'u crater floor. The latest overflows consisted of two small lobes that spilled onto the crater floor on the SE and NW sides of the lake (figure 268).

Figure 268. Aerial photo of Halema'uma'u crater and lava lake at Kilauea, looking south, showing the two areas where the lake overflowed onto the crater floor on 15 October 2016. The first overflow is on the upper-left side of the lake; the later overflow at is at the lower right side. Photo by T. Orr, 3 November 2016, courtesy of HVO (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for October-December 2016).

The lava lake surface or spatter from the lake was visible intermittently from the Jaggar Overlook on the NW rim of the caldera. During a few of the deflation phases of the DI events, newly exposed juvenile veneer on the crater walls detached and collapsed into the lake. Many of these collapses were too small to notice on the webcams or produce seismic events, but several events were noteworthy.

On 6 August there was a large collapse at the base of the Halema'uma'u crater wall (above the Southeast sink). The collapse produced a large explosive event, along with a composite seismic event, and vigorous spattering. The main explosive deposit blanketed the rim just east of the closed overlook, with tephra forming a continuous layer up to 20 cm thick. Bombs were deposited over an area 220 m wide (along the rim) and up to 90 m beyond the crater rim, with sparse lapilli thrown across the parking lot. HVO monitoring equipment and some of the remaining wooden fencing for the overlook were burned.

A second explosive event occurred on 19 September, also triggered by a collapse of the crater wall above the Southeast sink. Bombs and smaller scoria reached the Halema?uma?u crater rim and ash was deposited across the parking area and road. Large events also occurred on 4 October around 1100, and again at around noon. The first triggered a composite seismic event and spattering when veneer on the E wall fell into the lake, and the other triggered brief spattering when a large sheet of veneer fell from the SW wall. On 19 and 20 October, explosive events were triggered by rockfalls below the overlook (figure 269). The first, at 0745, deposited spatter and ribbon bombs up to 30 cm long on the rim of Halema?uma?u, and produced muted composite seismicity. The 20 October event occurred at 1225, producing a tephra deposit that extended across the road past the parking lot, and generated weak composite seismicity.

Figure 269. Bombs and spatter from Halema'uma'u crater at Kilauea during October and November 2016. Left: the 20 October explosive event from the HMcam (a webcam on the SE rim of the crater) taken at 1226, showing spatter bombarding the overlook, after the collapse of the crater wall below the webcam. Right: a large bomb thrown from the lava lake during the 28 November explosive event. The fluidity of the spatter allowed it to splat upon impact. Photo by M. Patrick, 28 November 2016, courtesy of HVO (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for October-December 2016).

At 1159 on 28 November, another slice of crater wall below the HMcam (one of two Halema'uma'u webcams) fell and triggered an explosive event that again threw tephra onto the rim. The tephra deposit was sparse and confined to a narrow area 90-100 m wide along the rim between the two webcams on the SE rim. While most of the spatter bombs were less than 30 cm in size, the largest was about 160 cm long. The clasts were relatively fluidal in texture and most splatted upon impact (figure 269). The power and Ethernet cables for one of the webcams were damaged during this event. A similar event occurred on 2 December at 0658, when a large slab from the overlook crater wall directly below one of the webcams collapsed. This also triggered a small explosive event which bombarded the rim with spatter near the two cameras, and produced rare ribbon bombs close to a meter long. Another large veneer collapse occurred on 13 December at about 1355, when a slab fell from the N wall into the lake and triggered spattering.

Activity at Pu‘u ‘O‘o and the East Rift Zone. There were few notable changes at Pu'u 'O'o cone from July through December. Very slight uplift was observed during 2-4 July that may have corresponded to inflationary tilt. The forked lava stream in the vent on the NE spillway was visible on a 15 July overflight. Subsequent overflights found the streams progressively more crusted over, and no lava was visible in the vent on the 19 August overflight. The W pit had a large collapse of its NE rim that was noticed on 1 September. A few meters had shaved off the rim of the pit, making a pile of rubble on the pit floor.

One of the two vents on the NE spillway re-opened at some point during the day on 2 November. Fieldwork on 3 November showed that the W-pit lava pond was 52 m across and 22 m below the pit rim, at an elevation of 848 m. The pond level was at 847 m when seen again on 29 November, with weak spattering at a few places around the pond perimeter.

The new flow (episode 61g), which began from the NE flank of Pu?u 'O'o cone on 24 May 2016, had reached the top of Pulama pali (cliff) on 28 June 2016 (BGVN 41:08, figure 263). It reached the base of the pali on the last day of June, and began to advance quickly across the coastal plain (figure 270). It was initially quite narrow, about 100 m across, possibly because of the flow high advance rate and confining topography in the area, according to HVO. The flow had slowed by 5 July; it was half way across the coastal plain, with the leading tip about 1.7 km from both the base of the pali and the ocean, and 1.6 km from the closest portion of the FEMA evacuation road that runs along the coast.

Figure 270. Episode 61g lava flow at Kilauea leaves the base of Pulama pali headed across the coastal plain on 2 July 2016. Several channelized 'a'a flows are visible coming down the slope. Location is at the eastern boundary of the National Park and western boundary of the Royal Gardens subdivision. Photo by Kirsten Stephens, courtesy of Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for July-September 2016).

The flow front continued to advance slowly over the next few weeks and eventually stalled in mid-July. The stalled front was soon overtaken, however, by breakouts that had been steadily advancing downslope behind the front. These breakouts formed a new front that continued to advance rapidly at up to 170 m/day. By 24 July, the flow front had reached to within about 260 m of the FEMA emergency access road. The next day (25 July) at 1520 HST, the 61g flow crossed the FEMA road (figure 271), and at 0112 HST on 26 July lava spilled over the sea cliff and into the water, marking the start of the rapid growth of the Kamokuna ocean entry.

Figure 271. Episode 61g lava flow of Kilauea crosses the FEMA emergency access road. Left: the lava flow on 25 July 2016 at 1616 HST about 30 minutes after it crossed the road in a thin sheet, photo by L. DeSmither. Right: on 5 August (almost two weeks later), in the same general location as the first, note the amount of flow inflation (HVO geologist for scale), photo by M. Patrick. Both images courtesy of Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for July-September 2016).

The flow field continued to widen over the next few months, as scattered breakouts crept down the flow (figure 272). One of these breakouts formed a second ocean entry point several hundred meters to the W of the initial entry. Other, smaller breakouts reached the ocean along the stretch of land between the two main entry points, forming short-lived entries (figure 273). Persistent breakouts near the base of the Pulama pali began to build a ramp, making the pali less steep.

Figure 272. A breakout from the episode 61g flow on the coastal plain of Kilauea on 20 September 2016. Burning vegetation on the pali from the recent flow is visible in the background. Photo by Matt Patrick, courtesy of Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for July-September 2016).

Figure 273. Lava flows into the sea at Kilauea from one of the entry points along the Kamokuna ocean entry, as viewed from the sea, on 11 September 2016. Photo by Tom Pfeiffer, courtesy of Volcano Discovery.

Numerous small delta collapses on both the E and W deltas were reported during August and September, but the deltas overall continued to grow. By the end of September the E delta was about 5.2 hectares (12.9 acres), and had developed several large coast-parallel cracks that suggested it was becoming unstable (figure 274). Activity at the W delta was always subordinate to that at the E delta and was abandoned in late September, having reached about 2.6 ha in size.

Figure 274. The E lava delta at the Kamokuna ocean entry at Kilauea on 30 September 2016. Top: the E Kamokuna ocean entry and lava delta, showing large cracks parallel to the sea cliff. Photo by T. Orr. Bottom: thermal image of the delta showing heat in the cracks, and hot water plumes extending out from the ocean entry points. Courtesy of Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for July-September 2016).

The only surface activity not on the lower half of the flow field (from the top of the pali to the coast) during July-September was a large breakout from the episode 61g vent on the east flank of Pu‘u ‘O‘o cone that started 29 August. The breakout was active for only a few days and died during the first week of September. On 27 September a skylight abruptly opened a few hundred meters inland from the ocean entry, producing a strong glow at night. Very little surface activity was present on the coastal plain near the Kamokuna ocean entry during October-December. A small breakout started about a kilometer upslope from the park rope line on 24 November, and remained active until the evening of 28 November.

However, breakouts did continue near the Pulama pali during October-December, further building up the intermediate-sloped ramp at the base of the pali (figure 275). The first of these started on 1 October and continued until at least 23 October, having extended a short distance beyond the base of the pali. A breakout started near the bottom of the steepest part of the pali during 22-23 November, producing short-lived channelized flows. The breakout remained active until at least 30 November, but was apparently inactive by 6 December.

Figure 275. Episode 61g eruption of Kilauea on 13 November 2016, captured by the Advanced Land Imager (ALI) on NASA's Earth Observing-1 satellite. The lava first reached the ocean on 26 July, and most of the lava delta created at the Kamokuna entry collapsed into the sea on 31 December 2016. The gray areas in the image show lava that has accumulated since 1983. The 2016 active flow started at a vent just east of the Pu‘u ‘O‘o crater. It moved SE and S through lava tubes below the surface. The signature of a recent surface breakout is the lighter gray area at the base of the Pulama pali (cliff). Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

At the episode 61g vent near Pu‘u ‘O‘o cone, a new breakout started between 0830 and 0840 on 21 November 2016. The ground surface over and just upslope from the vent was fractured and uplifted 3-4 m. The breakout consisted of two branches, one of which generally headed S and was short lived, stagnating during the day of 26 November. The other flowed NE and surrounded the nearby Pu?u Halulu cone before turning to the SE. The flow front of this second branch was about 2 km from the vent when mapped on 17 December (figure 276), but continued to advance through the end of the year. In addition to the 21 November breakout, other short-lived breakouts from the episode 61g vent were active during 1-3 December, 11-12 December, and 25-28 December.

Figure 276. Changes to the flow field of the episode 61g flow between 20 September and 25 December 2016. Courtesy of HVO (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for October-December 2016).

During an overflight on 3 November, HVO found that the W delta, which became inactive in late September, was approximately 2 ha after losing about 0.6 ha to wave erosion. The E delta at the Kamokuna ocean entry remained very active through December, reaching a relatively stable size of around 10 ha, kept in check by frequent small collapses. Large cracks on the delta parallel to the old sea cliff were apparent, and the delta on the seaward side of the cracks appeared to be tilted, indicating instability. The delta was about 9 ha in size in late December.

During mid-afternoon on 31 December 2016, the E delta began to collapse in pieces. Over the course of a few hours, most of the delta had disappeared into the water, leaving about 1 ha as narrow remnant ledges at the base of the sea cliff (figures 277 and 278). In addition to the delta collapse, roughly 1.6 ha of the older, post-1986 sea cliff also fell into the ocean, likely due to undercutting promoted by the delta collapse. This portion of the old sea cliff was partially above the E edge of the delta, but most of it was adjacent to the delta to the east (figure 278), and included part of the National Park viewing area. The sea cliff collapses produced thick, dusty plumes and large waves that splashed back onto the sea cliff, in some instances. In the days that followed, a few more small slices of unstable sea cliff collapsed into the water. The total area that collapsed, including the delta and the older sea cliff, was approximately 10 ha.

Figure 277. Eastern Kamokuna lava delta (episode 61g flow) at Kilauea, before and after the 31 December 2016 collapse. Left: The delta on 14 October when it was about 6 ha (15 acres) in size. Photo by L. DeSmither. Right: After the 31 December collapse, showing remnants of the delta. Photo by M. Patrick on 1 January 2017. Courtesy of HVO (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for October-December 2016).

Figure 278. Map of the Kamokuna ocean entry at Kilauea as of 3 January 2017, showing areas of collapse, remaining delta, and other features. Courtesy of HVO (Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Quarterly Report for October-December 2016).

Thermal anomaly data. Satellite-based thermal anomaly data from the MODIS instrument generates a strong continuous signal from Kilauea that closely follows the distribution of the active lava flows. As the episode 61g flow emerged from Pu'u 'O'o and headed SE, the thermal signature was strong between Pu'u 'O'o and the Pulama pali during the last week of June as recorded by the University of Hawaii's MODVOLC thermal alert system. By mid-August, a few weeks after the flow had reached the sea, the thermal activity extended from the pali to the Kamokuna ocean entry site (figure 279).

Figure 279. Thermal alerts from MODVOLC at Kilauea during late June and August 2016. Pu'u 'O'o is beneath the pixel in the upper left of the top image. Top: Alerts during 26 June-1 July 2016. The Pulama pali shows as the shaded area underneath the leading SE edge of the flow. Bottom: Alerts during 12-19 August 2016. The lava was hottest between the Pulama pali on the N and the new Kamokuna ocean entry at the bottom of the image. Courtesy of HIGP MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.

New breakouts from the Pulama pali area were recorded as thermal alerts during the second week of November along with the evidence for continued thermal alerts from the Kamokuna delta at the shoreline. At the vent area of episode 61g, near Pu'u 'O'o cone, new breakouts flowed NE of the cone and were captured as thermal alerts during early December (figure 280).

Figure 280. Thermal alerts from MODVOLC at Kilauea during November and December 2016. Top: New breakouts were reported from the Pulama pali area and were visible in the thermal data during 5-11 November along with the thermal alerts from the Kamokuna lava delta at the shoreline. Bottom: Alerts during 10-16 December 2016 show renewed breakout activity at the episode 61g vent near Pu'u 'O'o (upper left of image) as well as continued activity at the Kamokuna ocean entry on the shoreline. Courtesy of HIGP MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.

Geologic Background. Kilauea volcano, which overlaps the east flank of the massive Mauna Loa shield volcano, has been Hawaii's most active volcano during historical time. Eruptions are prominent in Polynesian legends; written documentation extending back to only 1820 records frequent summit and flank lava flow eruptions that were interspersed with periods of long-term lava lake activity that lasted until 1924 at Halemaumau crater, within the summit caldera. The 3 x 5 km caldera was formed in several stages about 1500 years ago and during the 18th century; eruptions have also originated from the lengthy East and SW rift zones, which extend to the sea on both sides of the volcano. About 90% of the surface of the basaltic shield volcano is formed of lava flows less than about 1100 years old; 70% of the volcano's surface is younger than 600 years. A long-term eruption from the East rift zone that began in 1983 has produced lava flows covering more than 100 sq km, destroying nearly 200 houses and adding new coastline to the island.

Information Contacts: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), U.S. Geological Survey, PO Box 51, Hawai'i National Park, HI 96718, USA (URL: http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/); NASA Earth Observatory, EOS Project Science Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Tom Pfeiffer, Volcano Discovery (URL: http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/).

The active crater at Costa Rica's Rincón de la Vieja, which contains a 500-m-wide acid lake, has been the site of numerous historic eruptions at this large volcanic complex. Intermittent phreatic explosions since 2011 have dispersed volcanic debris from the crater lake within a few kilometers of the crater rim and into the surrounding streams a number of times. The most recent previous activity included explosions in September and October 2014, and phreatic eruptions on June, August and October 2015 (BGVN 41:01); this report discusses activity during 2016 and through July 2017. Information comes from the Observatorio Vulcanológico Sismológica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA) and the Observatorio Sismológico y Vulcanológico de Arenal-Miravalles (OSIVAM-ICE). The OVISAM-ICE reports are published through the Red Sismológica Nacional (RSN), the National Seismological Network. Ejected material is described in the original reports in various ways that appear to be interchangeable rather than signifying actual content differences, so those distinctions are not reflected below unless ash was specified.

The first evidence of a new episode of phreatic explosions was noted during a site visit on 15 February 2016. Numerous explosions during March spread material as far as 2 km from the crater rim. After an explosion on 1 May 2016 there were no further reports until 23 May 2017, when a series of intermittent explosions again ejected material onto the N and NW flanks and sent plumes of steam-and-gas as high as 2 km above the crater rim. The last reported explosion was on 5 July 2017.

Activity decreased at the end of 2015 after the phreatic explosions of 16-21 October. The number of seismic events increased again during February and March 2016. OVSICORI-UNA scientists observed the first evidence of a new episode of phreatic explosions during a field visit on 15 February 2016 when they noted deposits about 20 m from the crater rim. By the end of March, the RSN had reported 25 explosions. Three of the largest explosions occurred on 9 February, 9 March, and 18 March. They were characterized by episodes of tremor in pulses that usually lasted about five minutes prior to the phreatic explosion, and then changed to continuous tremor for several hours afterwards.

OSIVAM-ICE scientists reported photographic evidence of deposits from a 2 March explosion that covered a wide area on the N flank of the active crater (figure 22). They visited on 3 March 2016 and noted fresh deposits from the phreatic explosions about 200 m W of the crater rim (figure 23). They also witnessed three explosions during the afternoon, the longest lasting for 65 seconds.

Figure 22. Deposits of material ejected from the crater lake on the N edge of Rincón de la Vieja associated with an eruptive event that occurred on 2 March 2016 at 1747 local time. Photo from Fernando Madrigal's Sensoria site, courtesy of RSN (Resumen de la actividad sísmica y eruptive del volcán Rincón de la Vieja (Costa Rica) 01 de octubre del 2015 al 15 de marzo del 2016).

Figure 23. Deposit of material from the crater lake at Rincón de la Vieja on 3 March 2016, located about 200 m W of the crater rim. Photo by OSIVAM-ICE scientists, courtesy of RSN (Resumen de la actividad sísmica y eruptive del volcán Rincón de la Vieja (Costa Rica) 01 de octubre del 2015 al 15 de marzo del 2016).

Scientists from OVSICORI-UNA conducted additional site visits during 8 and 10-11 March 2016. On 8 March fresh ash was found about 120 m from the crater rim (figure 24), and a temperature of 55°C was measured remotely for the convection cell in the lake. Based on photographs taken by nearby residents, OVSICORI-UNA scientists estimated that the ash and steam plumes produced by the 9 and 10 March explosions rose 700 and 850 m, respectively, above the crater. Local residents reported to The Tico Times that ash fell on the roofs of their homes within an area up to 6 km around the volcano after the explosion on 9 March, mostly in communities N of the crater (Upala and Buenos Aires).

Figure 24. The N rim of the active crater at Rincón de la Vieja on 8 March 2016 is marked with the outline (white dashes) showing the extent of material ejected during recent explosions. The arrow at the top shows the dominant wind direction. Inset on left shows riverbed deposits of recent material on 8 March, and the right inset images show the plumes from the 9 (upper) and 10 (lower) March explosions. Right inset photos by Jorge Viales, courtesy of OVSICORI (Erupciones del volcán Rincón de la Vieja: Observaciones de Campo).

The character of the deposits changed between February and March 2016, according to a report by OVSICORI scientists. The samples collected in February were rich in elemental sulfur, abundant in the crater lake and in the near-surface sediments. Studies of the March samples showed the presence of clasts of altered rocks, hydrothermal minerals, and elemental sulfur as well as 3-10% fresh glass.

During their summit visit on 10 and 11 March 2016, OVSICORI scientists noted a coating of white sediment, up to 5 mm thick in some places, covering the ground and the vegetation in a 400m-wide area to the SSW of the active crater (figure 25). Deposits extended as far as 2 km away, and coated the flanks of both the active crater and the nearby Von Seeback crater (figure 26).

Figure 25. Material from phreatic explosions cover a Copey shrub at Rincón de la Vieja on 10 March 2016. The plant was located 1.5 km SSW from the active crater. Photo by E. Duarte, courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA (Visita al Volcán Rincón de la Vieja: Mapeo de Efecto y Características de Erupciones Freáticas Recientes).

Figure 26. A view to the ESE on 10 March 2016 from the flank of the Von Seeback crater towards the active crater showing the coating of white sediments from the recent phreatic explosions at Rincón de la Vieja. The arrow points roughly NW showing the direction of sediment dispersal. Material was sampled at site 4 (white circle). Photo by E. Duarte, courtesy of OVSICORI-UNA (Visita al Volcán Rincón de la Vieja: Mapeo de Efecto y Características de Erupciones Freáticas Recientes).

A 15 March explosion generated a 700-m-high plume of water vapor and gas, according to an announcement from OVSICORI-UNA. They also reported an explosion on 1 May 2016 detected for 11 minutes by the seismic network. No further reports were made until May 2017.

A small lahar traveled down the N flank of the crater after an explosion on 23 May 2017. Explosions on 11 and 12 June were recorded seismically, but cloudy weather obscured visual observations. The Washington VAAC, however, noted a hotspot in the infrared satellite data on 11 June 2017 about 30 minutes before the explosion was reported. A diffuse steam plume was observed from Dos Rios de Upala rising about 50 m above the summit on 15 June, and a small phreatic explosion was recorded on 18 June 2017. A larger explosion on 23 June sent a plume 1-2 km above the summit, and ejected material to the W and NW onto the upper N flank toward the Von Seebach crater 2 km to the W. Small phreatic explosions on 5 July ejected material that did not rise above the crater rim.

Geologic Background. Rincón de la Vieja, the largest volcano in NW Costa Rica, is a remote volcanic complex in the Guanacaste Range. The volcano consists of an elongated, arcuate NW-SE-trending ridge that was constructed within the 15-km-wide early Pleistocene Guachipelín caldera, whose rim is exposed on the south side. Sometimes known as the "Colossus of Guanacaste," it has an estimated volume of 130 cu km and contains at least nine major eruptive centers. Activity has migrated to the SE, where the youngest-looking craters are located. The twin cone of 1916-m-high Santa María volcano, the highest peak of the complex, is located at the eastern end of a smaller, 5-km-wide caldera and has a 500-m-wide crater. A plinian eruption producing the 0.25 cu km Río Blanca tephra about 3500 years ago was the last major magmatic eruption. All subsequent eruptions, including numerous historical eruptions possibly dating back to the 16th century, have been from the prominent crater containing a 500-m-wide acid lake (known as the Active Crater) located ENE of Von Seebach crater.

Information Contacts: Observatorio Vulcanológico Sismológica de Costa Rica-Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-UNA), Apartado 86-3000, Heredia, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.ovsicori.una.ac.cr/); Observatorio Sismológico y Vulcanológico Arenal-Miravalles del Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (OSIVAM-ICE), Sección de Sismología, Vulcanología y Exploración Geofísica, Escuela Centroamericana de Geología, Apdo. 214-2060, San Pedro, Costa Rica (URL: http://www.rsn.ucr.ac.cr/); The Tico Times (URL: http://www.ticotimes.net/2016/03/10/costa-rica-rincon-de-la-vieja-volcano-vapor-ash-explosions).

Ecuador's Sangay, isolated on the east side of the Andean crest, has exhibited frequent eruptive activity over the last 400 years. Its remoteness has made ground observations difficult until recent times, and thus most information has come from aviation reports from the Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) and MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) satellite-based data. Thermal anomaly information is reported by the University of Hawaii's MODVOLC system and the Italian MIROVA Volcano HotSpot Detection System. Ecuador's Instituto Geofísico (IG) issues periodic Special Reports of activity. This report summarizes the intermittent nature of the eruptions from 2011-2013, and covers renewed activity during January 2015 through July 2017.

Summary of activity during 2011-2013. Activity during 2011 (figure 14) began with a continuation of the intermittent ash emissions and thermal anomalies that persisted throughout 2010 (BGVN 36:01). Ash plumes during January and February 2011 were reported at typical altitudes between 6 and 8 km; thermal alerts appeared once each during January and March. No activity was reported after 2 March until a new series of thermal alerts began more than 3 months later on 6 June 2011; they were intermittent from then through 19 September 2012, with reports occurring during 1-4 days of all but three months. Ash emissions were also intermittent during this time, with VAAC reports issued during eight of the months from 2 August 2011-28 July 2012 for plumes reported at altitudes of 6-8 km. They also generally occurred during 1-4 days of the month. A four-month break in activity followed until ash plumes were reported on 25 January 2013; they were intermittent until 24 May 2013. MODVOLC thermal anomalies were also reported during this time, on 2 February, 25 March, and 3-4 May.

Figure 14. Summary chart of ash emissions and thermal anomalies reported from Sangay during January 2010 to early August 2017. Red bars show eruptive periods where there are reports of either ash plumes or thermal anomalies without a lack of observed activity for more than 3 months. Rows with pink cells indicate dates with thermal anomalies (MODVOLC or MIROVA). Rows with blue cells indicate dates with ash emissions as reported by the Washington VAAC. A range of dates means that activity occurred at least on those two dates, but may not have been continuous. Data courtesy of Washington VAAC, HIGP MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, and MIROVA.

Summary of activity during January 2015-July 2017. After 19 months of quiet from June 2013 through December 2014, an ash plume reported on 19 January 2015 marked the beginning of a new eruptive episode that included ash plumes, lava flows, and block avalanches between 19 January and 7 April 2015. The next reported activity included both ash emissions and thermal anomalies observed almost a year later on 25 March 2016, although IG had reported increases in seismicity during the previous two weeks. Ash emissions and thermal anomalies were intermittent through 16 July 2016. There was a single thermal anomaly seen in MIROVA data on about 10 October and a brief ash emission occurred during 16-17 November 2016, after which Sangay was quiet until a new episode started on 20 July 2017 that was ongoing into August.

Activity during January-April 2015. After a 19-month period of no reported activity (since May 2013), ash emissions were again seen beginning on 18 January 2015 when an ash plume rose to 6.4 km altitude and drifted SW. Additional plumes on 25 January and 4 February rose to 7.3 km and 6.7 km, respectively, and drifted less than 20 km SW (figure 15). Ash plumes primarily observed by pilots between 27 February and 16 March were generally not visible in satellite images due to weather clouds. During this episode, MODVOLC thermal alerts were reported on 26 January; 7, 21, 23 and 27 February; 2,4,18, and 27 March; and 1, 3, and 7 April.

Figure 15. Ash emission at Sangay sometime during 19-26 January 2015. The ash plume eventually reached about 2 km above the 5,286-m-high summit crater. Photo by Gustavo Cruz, courtesy of IG (Informe Especial del Volcan Sangay No 1, 16 March 2015).

In a March 2015 report, IG noted that new lava flows and block-avalanche deposits had been emplaced during January and February 2015. The lava flows descended the SE flank about 900 m (figure 16). Two areas of deposits from block avalanches and ashfall extended 2.5 km ESE from the lava front, and 1.5 km down the S flank. According to IG, there were 21 thermal anomalies identified in MIROVA during 31 January-25 February 2015.

Figure 16. Locations of lava flows and block-avalanche deposits at Sangay that were emplaced during January and February 2015. The new lava flows are shown in red. The ash and block-avalanche deposits are shown in stippled yellow/green. Courtesy of IG (Informe Especial del Volcan Sangay No 1, 16 March 2015).

Activity during March-November 2016. IG reported an increase in seismicity on 5 March 2016, after ten months of no reported activity. An explosion signal was followed by harmonic tremor on 9 March, and IG noted that both a thermal anomaly and an emission drifting S were identified in NOAA satellite images. They inferred that increased seismic "explosion" signals on 14 March were indicative of ash-and-gas emissions, although weather clouds prohibited visual confirmation. Ash emissions rising to 6.1 km altitude were first reported by the Guayaquil MWO on 25 March 2016; they noted two more emissions on 27 and 28 March rising to similar altitudes (7.6 and 6.4 km, respectively), but cloudy weather prevented satellite confirmation. Plumes reported on nine days during April rose to similar altitudes (ranging from 5.5-7 km) and extended 18-30 km N or NW from the summit. A series of daily emissions occurred from 30 April-7 May. The emissions included a plume on 2 May that extended 120 km NW, and one on 6 May that rose to 8.2 km altitude and extended approximately 55 km SW before dissipating. Ash-bearing plumes were reported on 10 more days during the rest of May.

Although no more ash plumes were reported until 16 July 2016, MODVOLC thermal alerts were persistent every month beginning on 25 March and lasting through 5 July (see figure 14 above). The MIROVA data for this period also clearly show persistent thermal anomalies (figure 17). A short-lived eruption event during 16-17 November 2016 consisted of an ash emission that rose to 6.1 km altitude and drifted as far as 290 km SE.

Figure 17. Thermal anomaly data from MIROVA for the year ending on 18 January 2017 at Sangay, showing the eruptive episode of March-July 2016, and a brief anomaly on about 10 October 2016; late October-November anomalies are more than 20 kilometers from the summit and unrelated to volcanism. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Activity beginning July 2017. A new eruptive episode began on 20 July 2017, after eight months without major surface activity. Low-energy ash emissions rising to 3 km above the crater, incandescent block avalanches on the ESE flank (figure 18), and a possible new lava flow were reported by IG. The Washington VAAC reported an ash emission on 20 July rising to 8.2 km altitude and drifting about 80 km W. A plume was reported on 1 August by the Guyaquil MWO but obscured by clouds in satellite images, and a plume on 2 August was seen in webcam images (figure 19).

Figure 18. Incandescent blocks roll down the ESE flank of Sangay during the early morning of 1 August 2017. Courtesy of IG (Informe Especial del Volcán Sangay-2017-No 1, 3 August 2017).

Figure 19. Ash emission at Sangay on 2 August 2017, with the plume rising about 400 m above the summit crater drifting SW. Courtesy of IG (Informe Especial del Volcán Sangay-2017-No 1, 3 August 2017).

Geologic Background. The isolated Sangay volcano, located east of the Andean crest, is the southernmost of Ecuador's volcanoes, and its most active. The dominantly andesitic volcano has been in frequent eruption for the past several centuries. The steep-sided, 5230-m-high glacier-covered volcano grew within horseshoe-shaped calderas of two previous edifices, which were destroyed by collapse to the east, producing large debris avalanches that reached the Amazonian lowlands. The modern edifice dates back to at least 14,000 years ago. It towers above the tropical jungle on the east side; on the other sides flat plains of ash have been sculpted by heavy rains into steep-walled canyons up to 600 m deep. The earliest report of a historical eruption was in 1628. More or less continuous eruptions were reported from 1728 until 1916, and again from 1934 to the present. The almost constant activity has caused frequent changes to the morphology of the summit crater complex.

Information Contacts: Instituto Geofísico (IG), Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Casilla 17-01-2759, Quito, Ecuador (URL: http://www.igepn.edu.ec/); Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), NOAA/NESDIS OSPO, NOAA Science Center Room 401, 5200 Auth Rd, Camp Springs, MD 20746, USA (URL: www.ospo.noaa.gov/Products/atmosphere/vaac, archive at: http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/VAAC/archive.html); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/).