Masaya, which is about 20 km NW of the Nicaragua’s capital of Managua, is one of the most active volcanoes in that country and has a caldera that contains a number of craters (BGVN 43:11). The Santiago crater is the one most currently active and it contains a small lava lake that emits weak gas plumes (figure 85). This report summarizes activity during February through May 2020 and is based on Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER) monthly reports and satellite data. During the reporting period, the volcano was relatively calm, with only weak gas plumes.

Figure 85. Satellite images of Masaya from Sentinel-2 on 18 April 2020, showing and a small gas plume drifting SW (top, natural color bands 4, 3, 2) and the lava lake (bottom, false color bands 12, 11, 4). Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

According to INETER, thermal images of the lava lake and temperature data in the fumaroles were taken using an Omega infrared gun and a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) SC620 thermal camera. The temperatures above the lava lake have decreased since November 2019, when the temperature was 287°C, dropping to 96°C when measured on 14 May 2020. INETER attributed this decrease to subsidence in the level of the lava lake by 5 m which obstructed part of the lake and concentrated the gas emissions in the weak plume. Convection continued in the lava lake, which in May had decreased to a diameter of 3 m. Many landslides had occurred in the E, NE, and S walls of the crater rim due to rock fracturing caused by the high heat and acidity of the emissions.

During the reporting period, the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) volcano hotspot detection system recorded numerous thermal anomalies from the lava lake based on MODIS data (figure 86). Infrared satellite images from Sentinel-2 regularly showed a strong signature from the lava lake through 18 May, after which the volcano was covered by clouds.

Figure 86. Thermal anomalies at Masaya during February through May 2020. The larger anomalies with black lines are more distant and not related to the volcano. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Measurements of sulfur dioxide (SO2) made by INETER in the section of the Ticuantepe - La Concepción highway (just W of the volcano) with a mobile DOAS system varied between a low of just over 1,000 metric tons/day in mid-November 2019 to a high of almost 2,500 tons/day in late May. Temperatures of fumaroles in the Cerro El Comalito area, just ENE of Santiago crater, ranged from 58 to 76°C during February-May 2020, with most values in the 69-72°C range.

Geologic Background. Masaya is one of Nicaragua's most unusual and most active volcanoes. It lies within the massive Pleistocene Las Sierras caldera and is itself a broad, 6 x 11 km basaltic caldera with steep-sided walls up to 300 m high. The caldera is filled on its NW end by more than a dozen vents that erupted along a circular, 4-km-diameter fracture system. The Nindirí and Masaya cones, the source of historical eruptions, were constructed at the southern end of the fracture system and contain multiple summit craters, including the currently active Santiago crater. A major basaltic Plinian tephra erupted from Masaya about 6,500 years ago. Historical lava flows cover much of the caldera floor and there is a lake at the far eastern end. A lava flow from the 1670 eruption overtopped the north caldera rim. Masaya has been frequently active since the time of the Spanish Conquistadors, when an active lava lake prompted attempts to extract the volcano's molten "gold." Periods of long-term vigorous gas emission at roughly quarter-century intervals have caused health hazards and crop damage.

Information Contacts: Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), Apartado Postal 2110, Managua, Nicaragua (URL: http://www.ineter.gob.ni/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Shishaldin is located near the center of Unimak Island in Alaska, with the current eruption phase beginning in July 2019 and characterized by ash plumes, lava flows, lava fountaining, pyroclastic flows, and lahars. More recently, in late 2019 and into January 2020, activity consisted of multiple lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, and ashfall events (BGVN 45:02). This report summarizes activity from February through May 2020, including gas-and-steam emissions, brief thermal activity in mid-March, and a possible new cone within the summit crater. The primary source of information comes from the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) reports and various satellite data.

Volcanism during February 2020 was relatively low, consisting of weakly to moderately elevated surface temperatures during 1-4 February and occasional small gas-and-steam plumes (figure 37). By 6 February both seismicity and surface temperatures had decreased. Seismicity and surface temperatures increased slightly again on 8 March and remained elevated through the rest of the reporting period. Intermittent gas-and-steam emissions were also visible from mid-March (figure 38) through May. Minor ash deposits visible on the upper SE flank may have been due to ash resuspension or a small collapse event at the summit, according to AVO.

Figure 37. Photo of a gas-and-steam plume rising from the summit crater at Shishaldin on 22 February 2020. Photo courtesy of Ben David Jacob via AVO.

Figure 38. A Worldview-2 panchromatic satellite image on 11 March 2020 showing a gas-and-steam plume rising from the summit of Shishaldin and minor ash deposits on the SE flank (left). Aerial photo showing minor gas-and-steam emissions rising from the summit crater on 11 March (right). Some erosion of the snow and ice on the upper flanks is a result of the lava flows from the activity in late 2019 and early 2020. Photo courtesy of Matt Loewen (left) and Ed Fischer (right) via AVO.

On 14 March, lava and a possible new cone were visible in the summit crater using satellite imagery, accompanied by small explosion signals. Strong thermal signatures due to the lava were also seen in Sentinel-2 satellite data and continued strongly through the month (figure 39). The lava reported by AVO in the summit crater was also reflected in satellite-based MODIS thermal anomalies recorded by the MIROVA system (figure 40). Seismic and infrasound data identified small explosions signals within the summit crater during 14-19 March.

Figure 39. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite images (bands 12, 11, 8A) show a bright hotspot (yellow-orange) at the summit crater of Shishaldin during mid-March 2020 that decreases in intensity by late March. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 40. MIROVA thermal data showing a brief increase in thermal anomalies during late March 2020 and on two days in late April between periods of little to no activity. Courtesy of MIROVA.

AVO released a Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) stating that seismicity had decreased by 16 April and that satellite data no longer showed lava or additional changes in the crater since the start of April. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery continued to show a weak hotspot in the crater summit through May (figure 41), which was also detected by the MIROVA system on two days. A daily report on 6 May reported a visible ash deposit extending a short distance SE from the summit, which had likely been present since 29 April. AVO noted that the timing of the deposit corresponds to an increase in the summit crater diameter and depth, further supporting a possible small collapse. Small gas-and-steam emissions continued intermittently and were accompanied by weak tremors and occasional low-frequency earthquakes through May (figure 42). Minor amounts of sulfur dioxide were detected in the gas-and-steam emissions during 20 and 29 April, and 2, 16, and 28 May.

Figure 41. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite images (bands 12, 11, 8A) show occasional gas-and-steam emissions rising from Shishaldin on 26 February (top left) and 24 April 2020 (bottom left) and a weak hotspot (yellow-orange) persisting at the summit crater during April and early May 2020. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 42. A Worldview-1 panchromatic satellite image showing gas-and-steam emissions rising from the summit of Shishaldin on 1 May 2020 (local time) (left). Aerial photo of the N flank of Shishaldin with minor gas-and-steam emissions rising from the summit on 8 May (right). Photo courtesy of Matt Loewen (left) and Levi Musselwhite (right) via AVO.

Geologic Background. The beautifully symmetrical Shishaldin is the highest and one of the most active volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands. The glacier-covered volcano is the westernmost of three large stratovolcanoes along an E-W line in the eastern half of Unimak Island. The Aleuts named the volcano Sisquk, meaning "mountain which points the way when I am lost." A steam plume often rises from its small summit crater. Constructed atop an older glacially dissected volcano, it is largely basaltic in composition. Remnants of an older ancestral volcano are exposed on the W and NE sides at 1,500-1,800 m elevation. There are over two dozen pyroclastic cones on its NW flank, which is blanketed by massive aa lava flows. Frequent explosive activity, primarily consisting of Strombolian ash eruptions from the small summit crater, but sometimes producing lava flows, has been recorded since the 18th century.

Information Contacts: Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO), a cooperative program of a) U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 University Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508-4667 USA (URL: https://avo.alaska.edu/), b) Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, PO Box 757320, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320, USA, and c) Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys, 794 University Ave., Suite 200, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA (URL: http://dggs.alaska.gov/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Krakatau, located in the Sunda Strait between Indonesia’s Java and Sumatra Islands, experienced a major caldera collapse around 535 CE, forming a 7-km-wide caldera ringed by three islands. On 22 December 2018, a large explosion and flank collapse destroyed most of the 338-m-high island of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) and generated a deadly tsunami (BGVN 44:03). The near-sea level crater lake inside the remnant of Anak Krakatau was the site of numerous small steam and tephra explosions. A larger explosion in December 2019 produced the beginnings of a new cone above the surface of crater lake (BGVN 45:02). Recently, volcanism has been characterized by occasional Strombolian explosions, dense ash plumes, and crater incandescence. This report covers activity from February through May 2020 using information provided by the Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, also known as Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG), the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and various satellite data.

Activity during February 2020 consisted of dominantly white gas-and-steam emissions rising 300 m above the crater, according to PVMBG. According to the Darwin VAAC, a ground observer reported an eruption on 7 and 8 February, but no volcanic ash was observed. During 10-11 February, a short-lived eruption was detected by seismograms which produced an ash plume up to 1 km above the crater drifting E. MAGMA Indonesia reported two eruptions on 18 March, both of which rose to 300 m above the crater. White gas-and-steam emissions were observed for the rest of the month and early April.

On 10 April PVMBG reported two eruptions, at 2158 and 2235, both of which produced dark ash plumes rising 2 km above the crater followed by Strombolian explosions ejecting incandescent material that landed on the crater floor (figures 108 and 109). The Darwin VAAC issued a notice at 0145 on 11 April reporting an ash plume to 14.3 km altitude drifting WNW, however this was noted with low confidence due to the possible mixing of clouds. During the same day, an intense thermal hotspot was detected in the HIMAWARI thermal satellite imagery and the NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide page showed a strong SO₂ plume at 11.3 km altitude drifting W (figure 110). The CCTV Lava93 webcam showed new lava flows and lava fountaining from the 10-11 April eruptions. This activity was evident in the MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) graph of MODIS thermal anomaly data (figure 111).

Figure 108. Webcam (Lava93) images of Krakatau on 10 April 2020 showing Strombolian explosions, strong incandescence, and ash plumes rising from the crater. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Figure 109. Webcam image of incandescent Strombolian explosions at Krakatau on 10 April 2020. Courtesy of PVMBG and MAGMA Indonesia.

Figure 110. Strong sulfur dioxide emissions rising from Krakatau and drifting W were detected using the TROPOMI instrument on the Sentinel-5P satellite on 11 April 2020 (top row). Smaller volumes of SO2 were visible in Sentinel-5P/TROPOMI maps on 13 (bottom left) and 19 April (bottom right). Courtesy of NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page.

Figure 111. Thermal activity at Anak Krakatau from 29 June-May 2020 shown on a MIROVA Log Radiative Power graph. The power and frequency of the thermal anomalies sharply increased in mid-April. After the larger eruptive event in mid-April the thermal anomalies declined slightly in strength but continued to be detected intermittently through May. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Strombolian activity rising up to 500 m continued into 12 April and was accompanied by SO₂ emissions that rose 3 km altitude, drifting NW according to a VAAC notice. PVMBG reported an eruption on 13 April at 2054 that resulted in incandescence as high as 25 m above the crater. Volcanic ash, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions, continued intermittently through 18 April, many of which were observed by the CCTV webcam. After 18 April only gas-and-steam plumes were reported, rising up to 100 m above the crater; Sentinel-2 satellite imagery showed faint thermal anomalies in the crater (figure 112). SO₂ emissions continued intermittently throughout April, though at lower volumes and altitudes compared to the 11th. MODIS satellite data seen in MIROVA showed intermittent thermal anomalies through May.

Figure 112. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite images showing the cool crater lake on 20 March (top left) followed by minor heating of the crater during April and May 2020. Sentinel-2 satellite images with “Atmospheric penetration” (bands 12, 11, 8A) rendering; courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. The renowned volcano Krakatau (frequently misstated as Krakatoa) lies in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. Collapse of the ancestral Krakatau edifice, perhaps in 416 or 535 CE, formed a 7-km-wide caldera. Remnants of this ancestral volcano are preserved in Verlaten and Lang Islands; subsequently Rakata, Danan, and Perbuwatan volcanoes were formed, coalescing to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island. Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan, and left only a remnant of Rakata. This eruption, the 2nd largest in Indonesia during historical time, caused more than 36,000 fatalities, most as a result of devastating tsunamis that swept the adjacent coastlines of Sumatra and Java. Pyroclastic surges traveled 40 km across the Sunda Strait and reached the Sumatra coast. After a quiescence of less than a half century, the post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) was constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former cones of Danan and Perbuwatan. Anak Krakatau has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Taal volcano is in a caldera system located in southern Luzon island and is one of the most active volcanoes in the Philippines. It has produced around 35 recorded eruptions since 3,580 BCE, ranging from VEI 1 to 6, with the majority of eruptions being a VEI 2. The caldera contains a lake with an island that also contains a lake within the Main Crater (figure 12). Prior to 2020 the most recent eruption was in 1977, on the south flank near Mt. Tambaro. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in the Philippines reports that over 450,000 people live within 40 km of the caldera (figure 13). This report covers activity during January through February 2020 including the 12 to 22 January eruption, and is based on reports by Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), satellite data, geophysical data, and media reports.

Figure 12. Annotated satellite images showing the Taal caldera, Volcano Island in the caldera lake, and features on the island including Main Crater. Imagery courtesy of Planet Inc.

Figure 13. Map showing population totals within 14 and 17 km of Volcano Island at Taal. Courtesy of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).

The hazard status at Taal was raised to Alert Level 1 (abnormal, on a scale of 0-5) on 28 March 2019. From that date through to 1 December there were 4,857 earthquakes registered, with some felt nearby. Inflation was detected during 21-29 November and an increase in CO₂ emission within the Main Crater was observed. Seismicity increased beginning at 1100 on 12 January. At 1300 there were phreatic (steam) explosions from several points inside Main Crater and the Alert Level was raised to 2 (increasing unrest). Booming sounds were heard in Talisay, Batangas, at 1400; by 1402 the plume had reached 1 km above the crater, after which the Alert Level was raised to 3 (magmatic unrest).

Phreatic eruption on 12 January 2020. A seismic swarm began at 1100 on 12 January 2020 followed by a phreatic eruption at 1300. The initial activity consisted of steaming from at least five vents in Main Crater and phreatic explosions that generated 100-m-high plumes. PHIVOLCS raised the Alert Level to 2. The Earth Observatory of Singapore reported that the International Data Center (IDC) for the Comprehensive test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in Vienna noted initial infrasound detections at 1450 that day.

Booming sounds were heard at 1400 in Talisay, Batangas (4 km NNE from the Main Crater), and at 1404 volcanic tremor and earthquakes felt locally were accompanied by an eruption plume that rose 1 km; ash fell to the SSW. The Alert Level was raised to 3 and the evacuation of high-risk barangays was recommended. Activity again intensified around 1730, prompting PHIVOLCS to raise the Alert Level to 4 and recommend a total evacuation of the island and high-risk areas within a 14-km radius. The eruption plume of steam, gas, and tephra significantly intensified, rising to 10-15 km altitude and producing frequent lightning (figures 14 and 15). Wet ash fell as far away as Quezon City (75 km N). According to news articles schools and government offices were ordered to close and the Ninoy Aquino International Airport (56 km N) in Manila suspended flights. About 6,000 people had been evacuated. Residents described heavy ashfall, low visibility, and fallen trees.

Figure 14. Lightning produced during the eruption of Taal during 1500 on 12 January to 0500 on 13 January 2020 local time (0700-2100 UTC on 12 January). Courtesy of Chris Vagasky, Vaisala.

Figure 15. Lightning strokes produced during the first days of the Taal January 2020 eruption. Courtesy of Domcar C Lagto/SIPA/REX/Shutterstock via The Guardian.

In a statement issued at 0320 on 13 January, PHIVOLCS noted that ashfall had been reported across a broad area to the north in Tanauan (18 km NE), Batangas; Escala (11 km NW), Tagaytay; Sta. Rosa (32 km NNW), Laguna; Dasmariñas (32 km N), Bacoor (44 km N), and Silang (22 km N), Cavite; Malolos (93 km N), San Jose Del Monte (87 km N), and Meycauayan (80 km N), Bulacan; Antipolo (68 km NNE), Rizal; Muntinlupa (43 km N), Las Piñas (47 km N), Marikina (70 km NNE), Parañaque (51 km N), Pasig (62 km NNE), Quezon City, Mandaluyong (62 km N), San Juan (64 km N), Manila; Makati City (59 km N) and Taguig City (55 km N). Lapilli (2-64 mm in diameter) fell in Tanauan and Talisay; Tagaytay City (12 km N); Nuvali (25 km NNE) and Sta (figure 16). Rosa, Laguna. Felt earthquakes (Intensities II-V) continued to be recorded in local areas.

Figure 16. Ashfall from the Taal January 2020 eruption in Lemery (top) and in the Batangas province (bottom). Photos posted on 13 January, courtesy of Ezra Acayan/Getty Images, Aaron Favila/AP, and Ted Aljibe/AFP via Getty Images via The Guardian.

Magmatic eruption on 13 January 2020. A magmatic eruption began during 0249-0428 on 13 January, characterized by weak lava fountaining accompanied by thunder and flashes of lightning. Activity briefly waned then resumed with sporadic weak fountaining and explosions that generated 2-km-high, dark gray, steam-laden ash plumes (figure 17). New lateral vents opened on the N flank, producing 500-m-tall lava fountains. Heavy ashfall impacted areas to the SW, including in Cuenca (15 km SSW), Lemery (16 km SW), Talisay, and Taal (15 km SSW), Batangas (figure 18).

Figure 17. Ash plumes seen from various points around Taal in the initial days of the January 2020 eruption, posted on 13 January. Courtesy of Eloisa Lopez/Reuters, Kester Ragaza/Pacific Press/Shutterstock, Ted Aljibe/AFP via Getty Images, via The Guardian.

Figure 18. Map indicating areas impacted by ashfall from the 12 January eruption through to 0800 on the 13th. Small yellow circles (to the N) are ashfall report locations; blue circles (at the island and to the S) are heavy ashfall; large green circles are lapilli (particles measuring 2-64 mm in diameter). Modified from a map courtesy of Lauriane Chardot, Earth Observatory of Singapore; data taken from PHIVOLCS.

News articles noted that more than 300 domestic and 230 international flights were cancelled as the Manila Ninoy Aquino International Airport was closed during 12-13 January. Some roads from Talisay to Lemery and Agoncillo were impassible and electricity and water services were intermittent. Ashfall in several provinces caused power outages. Authorities continued to evacuate high-risk areas, and by 13 January more than 24,500 people had moved to 75 shelters out of a total number of 460,000 people within 14 km.

A PHIVOLCS report for 0800 on the 13th through 0800 on 14 January noted that lava fountaining had continued, with steam-rich ash plumes reaching around 2 km above the volcano and dispersing ash SE and W of Main Crater. Volcanic lighting continued at the base of the plumes. Fissures on the N flank produced 500-m-tall lava fountains. Heavy ashfall continued in the Lemery, Talisay, Taal, and Cuenca, Batangas Municipalities. By 1300 on the 13th lava fountaining generated 800-m-tall, dark gray, steam-laden ash plumes that drifted SW. Sulfur dioxide emissions averaged 5,299 metric tons/day (t/d) on 13 January and dispersed NNE (figure 19).

Figure 19. Compilation of sulfur dioxide plumes from TROPOMI overlaid in Google Earth for 13 January from 0313-1641 UT. Courtesy of NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page and Google Earth.

Explosions and ash emission through 22 January 2020. At 0800 on 15 January PHIVOLCS stated that activity was generally weaker; dark gray, steam-laden ash plumes rose about 1 km and drifted SW. Satellite images showed that the Main Crater lake was gone and new craters had formed inside Main Crater and on the N side of Volcano Island.

PHIVOLCS reported that activity during 15-16 January was characterized by dark gray, steam-laden plumes that rose as high as 1 km above the vents in Main Crater and drifted S and SW. Sulfur dioxide emissions were 4,186 t/d on 15 January. Eruptive events at 0617 and 0621 on 16 January generated short-lived, dark gray ash plumes that rose 500 and 800 m, respectively, and drifted SW. Weak steam plumes rose 800 m and drifted SW during 1100-1700, and nine weak explosions were recorded by the seismic network.

Steady steam emissions were visible during 17-21 January. Infrequent weak explosions generated ash plumes that rose as high as 1 km and drifted SW. Sulfur dioxide emissions fluctuated and were as high as 4,353 t/d on 20 January and as low as 344 t/d on 21 January. PHIVOLCS reported that white steam-laden plumes rose as high as 800 m above main vent during 22-28 January and drifted SW and NE; ash emissions ceased around 0500 on 22 January. Remobilized ash drifted SW on 22 January due to strong low winds, affecting the towns of Lemery (16 km SW) and Agoncillo, and rose as high as 5.8 km altitude as reported by pilots. Sulfur dioxide emissions were low at 140 t/d.

Steam plumes through mid-April 2020. The Alert Level was lowered to 3 on 26 January and PHIVOLCS recommended no entry onto Volcano Island and Taal Lake, nor into towns on the western side of the island within a 7-km radius. PHIVOLCS reported that whitish steam plumes rose as high as 800 m during 29 January-4 February and drifted SW (figure 20). The observed steam plumes rose as high as 300 m during 5-11 February and drifted SW.

Sulfur dioxide emissions averaged around 250 t/d during 22-26 January; emissions were 87 t/d on 27 January and below detectable limits the next day. During 29 January-4 February sulfur dioxide emissions ranged to a high of 231 t/d (on 3 February). The following week sulfur dioxide emissions ranged from values below detectable limits to a high of 116 t/d (on 8 February).

Figure 20. Taal Volcano Island producing gas-and-steam plumes on 15-16 January 2020. Courtesy of James Reynolds, Earth Uncut.

On 14 February PHIVOLCS lowered the Alert Level to 2, noting a decline in the number of volcanic earthquakes, stabilizing ground deformation of the caldera and Volcano Island, and diffuse steam-and-gas emission that continued to rise no higher than 300 m above the main vent during the past three weeks. During 14-18 February sulfur dioxide emissions ranged from values below detectable limits to a high of 58 tonnes per day (on 16 February). Sulfur dioxide emissions were below detectable limits during 19-20 February. During 26 February-2 March steam plumes rose 50-300 m above the vent and drifted SW and NE. PHIVOLCS reported that during 4-10 March weak steam plumes rose 50-100 m and drifted SW and NE; moderate steam plumes rose 300-500 m and drifted SW during 8-9 March. During 11-17 March weak steam plumes again rose only 50-100 m and drifted SW and NE.

PHIVOLCS lowered the Alert Level to 1 on 19 March and recommended no entry onto Volcano Island, the area defined as the Permanent Danger Zone. During 8-9 April steam plumes rose 100-300 m and drifted SW. As of 1-2 May 2020 only weak steaming and fumarolic activity from fissure vents along the Daang Kastila trail was observed.

Evacuations. According to the Disaster Response Operations Monitoring and Information Center (DROMIC) there were a total of 53,832 people dispersed to 244 evacuation centers by 1800 on 15 January. By 21 January there were 148,987 people in 493 evacuation. The number of residents in evacuation centers dropped over the next week to 125,178 people in 497 locations on 28 January. However, many residents remained displaced as of 3 February, with DROMIC reporting 23,915 people in 152 evacuation centers, but an additional 224,188 people staying at other locations.

By 10 February there were 17,088 people in 110 evacuation centers, and an additional 211,729 staying at other locations. According to the DROMIC there were a total of 5,321 people in 21 evacuation centers, and an additional 195,987 people were staying at other locations as of 19 February.

The number of displaced residents continued to drop, and by 3 March there were 4,314 people in 12 evacuation centers, and an additional 132,931 people at other locations. As of 11 March there were still 4,131 people in 11 evacuation centers, but only 17,563 staying at other locations.

Deformation and ground cracks. New ground cracks were observed on 13 January in Sinisian (18 km SW), Mahabang Dahilig (14 km SW), Dayapan (15 km SW), Palanas (17 km SW), Sangalang (17 km SW), and Poblacion (19 km SW) Lemery; Pansipit (11 km SW), Agoncillo; Poblacion 1, Poblacion 2, Poblacion 3, Poblacion 5 (all around 17 km SW), Talisay, and Poblacion (11 km SW), San Nicolas (figure 21). A fissure opened across the road connecting Agoncillo to Laurel, Batangas. New ground cracking was reported the next day in Sambal Ibaba (17 km SW), and portions of the Pansipit River (SW) had dried up.

Figure 21. Video screenshots showing ground cracks that formed during the Taal unrest and captured on 15 and 16 January 2020. Courtesy of James Reynolds, Earth Uncut.

Dropping water levels of Taal Lake were first observed in some areas on 16 January but reported to be lake-wide the next day. The known ground cracks in the barangays of Lemery, Agoncillo, Talisay, and San Nicolas in Batangas Province widened a few centimeters by 17 January, and a new steaming fissure was identified on the N flank of the island.

GPS data had recorded a sudden widening of the caldera by ~1 m, uplift of the NW sector by ~20 cm, and subsidence of the SW part of Volcano Island by ~1 m just after the main eruption phase. The rate of deformation was smaller during 15-22 January, and generally corroborated by field observations; Taal Lake had receded about 30 cm by 25 January but about 2.5 m of the change (due to uplift) was observed around the SW portion of the lake, near the Pansipit River Valley where ground cracking had been reported.

Weak steaming (plumes 10-20 m high) from ground cracks was visible during 5-11 February along the Daang Kastila trail which connects the N part of Volcano Island to the N part of the main crater. PHIVOLCS reported that during 19-24 February steam plumes rose 50-100 m above the vent and drifted SW. Weak steaming (plumes up to 20 m high) from ground cracks was visible during 8-14 April along the Daang Kastila trail which connects the N part of Volcano Island to the N part of the main crater.

Seismicity. Between 1300 on 12 January and 0800 on 21 January the Philippine Seismic Network (PSN) had recorded a total of 718 volcanic earthquakes; 176 of those had magnitudes ranging from 1.2-4.1 and were felt with Intensities of I-V. During 20-21 January there were five volcanic earthquakes with magnitudes of 1.6-2.5; the Taal Volcano network (which can detect smaller events not detectable by the PSN) recorded 448 volcanic earthquakes, including 17 low-frequency events. PHIVOLCS stated that by 21 January hybrid earthquakes had ceased and both the number and magnitude of low-frequency events had diminished.

Geologic Background. Taal is one of the most active volcanoes in the Philippines and has produced some of its most powerful historical eruptions. Though not topographically prominent, its prehistorical eruptions have greatly changed the landscape of SW Luzon. The 15 x 20 km Talisay (Taal) caldera is largely filled by Lake Taal, whose 267 km2 surface lies only 3 m above sea level. The maximum depth of the lake is 160 m, and several eruptive centers lie submerged beneath the lake. The 5-km-wide Volcano Island in north-central Lake Taal is the location of all historical eruptions. The island is composed of coalescing small stratovolcanoes, tuff rings, and scoria cones that have grown about 25% in area during historical time. Powerful pyroclastic flows and surges from historical eruptions have caused many fatalities.

Information Contacts: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), Department of Science and Technology, University of the Philippines Campus, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines (URL: http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/); Disaster Response Operations Monitoring and Information Center (DROMIC) (URL: https://dromic.dswd.gov.ph/); United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Philippines (URL: https://www.unocha.org/philippines); James Reynolds, Earth Uncut TV (Twitter: @EarthUncutTV, URL: https://www.earthuncut.tv/, YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/user/TyphoonHunter); Chris Vagasky, Vaisala Inc., Louisville, Colorado, USA (URL: https://www.vaisala.com/en?type=1, Twitter: @COweatherman, URL: https://twitter.com/COweatherman); Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore (URL: https://www.earthobservatory.sg/); Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Relief Web, Flash Update No. 1 - Philippines: Taal Volcano eruption (As of 13 January 2020, 2 p.m. local time) (URL: https://reliefweb.int/report/philippines/flash-update-no-1-philippines-taal-volcano-eruption-13-january-2020-2-pm-local); Bloomberg, Philippines Braces for Hazardous Volcano Eruption (URL: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-12/philippines-raises-alert-level-in-taal-as-volcano-spews-ash); National Public Radio (NPR), Volcanic Eruption In Philippines Causes Thousands To Flee (URL: npr.org/2020/01/13/795815351/volcanic-eruption-in-philippines-causes-thousands-to-flee); Reuters (http://www.reuters.com/); Agence France-Presse (URL: http://www.afp.com/); Pacific Press (URL: http://www.pacificpress.com/); Shutterstock (URL: https://www.shutterstock.com/); Getty Images (URL: http://www.gettyimages.com/); Google Earth (URL: https://www.google.com/earth/).

In the northern Tonga region, approximately 80 km NW of Vava’u, large areas of floating pumice, termed rafts, were observed starting as early as 7 August 2019. The area of these andesitic pumice rafts was initially 195 km² with the layers measuring 15-30 cm thick and were produced 200 m below sea level (Jutzeler et al. 2020). The previous report (BGVN 44:11) described the morphology of the clasts and the rafts, and their general westward path from 9 August to 9 October 2019, with the first sighting occurring on 9 August NW of Vava’u in Tonga. This report updates details regarding the submarine pumice raft eruption in early August 2019 using new observations and data from Brandl et al. (2019) and Jutzeler et al. (2020).

The NoToVE-2004 (Northern Tonga Vents Expedition) research cruise on the RV Southern Surveyor (SS11/2004) from the Australian CSIRO Marine National Facility traveled to the northern Tonga Arc and discovered several submarine basalt-to-rhyolite volcanic centers (Arculus, 2004). One of these volcanic centers 50 km NW of Vava’u was the unnamed seamount (volcano number 243091) that had erupted in 2001 and again in 2019, unofficially designated “Volcano F” for reference purposes by Arculus (2004) and also used by Brandl et al. (2019). It is a volcanic complex that rises more than 1 km from the seafloor with a central 6 x 8.7 km caldera and a volcanic apron measuring over 50 km in diameter (figures 19 and 20). Arculus (2004) described some of the dredged material as “fresh, black, plagioclase-bearing lava with well-formed, glassy crusts up to 2cm thick” from cones by the eastern wall of the caldera; a number of apparent flows, lava or debris, were observed draping over the northern wall of the caldera.

Figure 19. Visualization of the unnamed submarine Tongan volcano (marked “Volcano F”) using bathymetric data to show the site of the 6-8 August 2020 eruption and the rest of the cone complex. Courtesy of Philipp Brandl via GEOMAR.

Figure 20. Map of the unnamed submarine Tongan volcano using satellite imagery, bathymetric data, with shading from the NW. The yellow circle indicates the location of the August 2019 activity. Young volcanic cones are marked “C” and those with pit craters at the top are marked with “P.” Courtesy of Brandl et al. (2019).

The International Seismological Centre (ISC) Preliminary Bulletin listed a particularly strong (5.7 Mw) earthquake at 2201 local time on 5 August, 15 km SSW of the volcano at a depth of 10 km (Brandl et al. 2019). This event was followed by six slightly lower magnitude earthquakes over the next two days.

Sentinel-2 satellite imagery showed two concentric rings originating from a point source (18.307°S 174.395°W) on 6 August (figure 21), which could be interpreted as small weak submarine plumes or possibly a series of small volcanic cones, according to Brandl et al. (2019). The larger ring is about 1.2 km in diameter and the smaller one measures 250 m. By 8 August volcanic activity had decreased, but the pumice rafts that were produced remained visible through at least early October (BGVN 44:11). Brandl et al. (2019) states that, due to the lack of continued observed activity rising from this location, the eruption was likely a 2-day-long event during 6-8 August.

Figure 21. Sentinel-2 satellite image of possible gas/vapor emissions (streaks) on 6 August 2019 drifting NW, which is the interpreted site for the unnamed Tongan seamount. The larger ring is about 1.2 km in diameter and the smaller one measures 250 m. Image using False Color (urban) rendering (bands 12, 11, 4); courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

The pumice was first observed on 9 August occurred up to 56 km from the point of origin, according to Jutzeler et al. (2020). By calculating the velocity (14 km/day) of the raft using three satellites, Jutzeler et al. (2020) determined the pumice was erupted immediately after the satellite image of the submarine plumes on 6 August (UTC time). Minor activity at the vent may have continued on 8 and 11 August (UTC time) with pale blue-green water discoloration (figure 22) and a small (less than 1 km²) diffuse pumice raft 2-5 km from the vent.

Figure 22. Sentinel-2 satellite image of the last visible activity occurring W of the unnamed submarine Tongan volcano on 8 August 2019, represented by slightly discolored blue-green water. Image using Natural Color rendering (bands 4, 3, 2) and enhanced with color correction; courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Continuous observations using various satellite data and observations aboard the catamaran ROAM tracked the movement and extent of the pumice raft that was produced during the submarine eruption in early August (figure 23). The first visible pumice raft was observed on 8 August 2019, covering more than 136.7 km² between the volcanic islands of Fonualei and Late and drifting W for 60 km until 9 August (Brandl et al. 2019; Jutzeler 2020). The next day, the raft increased to 167.2-195 km² while drifting SW for 74 km until 14 August. Over the next three days (10-12 August) the size of the raft briefly decreased in size to less than 100 km² before increasing again to 157.4 km² on 14 August; at least nine individual rafts were mapped and identified on satellite imagery (Brandl et al. 2019). On 15 August sailing vessels observed a large pumice raft about 75 km W of Late Island (see details in BGVN 44:11), which was the same one as seen in satellite imagery on 8 August.

Figure 23. Map of the extent of discolored water and the pumice raft from the unnamed submarine Tongan volcano between 8 and 14 August 2019 using imagery from NASA’s MODIS, ESA’s Sentinel-2 satellite, and observations from aboard the catamaran ROAM (BGVN 44:11). Back-tracing the path of the pumice raft points to a source location at the unnamed submarine Tongan volcano. Courtesy of Brandl et al. (2019).

By 17 August high-resolution satellite images showed an area of large and small rafts measuring 222 km² and were found within a field of smaller rafts for a total extent of 1,350 km², which drifted 73 km NNW through 22 August before moving counterclockwise for three days (figure f; Jutzeler et al., 2020). Small pumice ribbons encountered the Oneata Lagoon on 30 August, the first island that the raft came into contact (Jutzeler et al. 2020). By 2 September, the main raft intersected with Lakeba Island (460 km from the source) (figure 24), breaking into smaller ribbons that started to drift W on 8 September. On 19 September the small rafts (less than 100 m x less than 2 km) entered the strait between Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, the two main islands of Fiji, while most of the others were stranded 60 km W in the Yasawa Islands for more than two months (Jutzeler et al., 2020).

Figure 24. Time-series map of the raft dispersal from the unnamed submarine Tongan volcano using multiple satellite images. A) Map showing the first days of the raft dispersal starting on 7 August 2019 and drifting SW from the vent (marked with a red triangle). Precursory seismicity that began on 5 August is marked with a white star. By 15-17 August the raft was entrained in an ocean loop or eddy. The dashed lines represent the path of the sailing vessels. B) Map of the raft dispersal using high-resolution Sentinel-2 and -3 imagery. Two dispersal trails (red and blue dashed lines) show the daily dispersal of two parts of the raft that were separated on 17 August 2019. Courtesy of Jutzeler et al. (2020).

References: Arculus, R J, SS2004/11 shipboard scientists, 2004. SS11/2004 Voyage Summary: NoToVE-2004 (Northern Tonga Vents Expedition): submarine hydrothermal plume activity and petrology of the northern Tofua Arc, Tonga. https://www.cmar.csiro.au/data/reporting/get file.cfm?eovpub id=901.

Brandl P A, Schmid F, Augustin N, Grevemeyer I, Arculus R J, Devey C W, Petersen S, Stewart M , Kopp K, Hannington M D, 2019. The 6-8 Aug 2019 eruption of ‘Volcano F’ in the Tofua Arc, Tonga. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.106695

Jutzeler M, Marsh R, van Sebille E, Mittal T, Carey R, Fauria K, Manga M, McPhie J, 2020. Ongoing Dispersal of the 7 August 2019 Pumice Raft From the Tonga Arc in the Southwestern Pacific Ocean. AGU Geophysical Research Letters: https://doi.orh/10.1029/2019GL086768.

Geologic Background. A submarine volcano along the Tofua volcanic arc was first observed in September 2001. The newly discovered volcano lies NW of the island of Vava'u about 35 km S of Fonualei and 60 km NE of Late volcano. The site of the eruption is along a NNE-SSW-trending submarine plateau with an approximate bathymetric depth of 300 m. T-phase waves were recorded on 27-28 September 2001, and on the 27th local fishermen observed an ash-rich eruption column that rose above the sea surface. No eruptive activity was reported after the 28th, but water discoloration was documented during the following month. In early November rafts and strandings of dacitic pumice were reported along the coast of Kadavu and Viti Levu in the Fiji Islands. The depth of the summit of the submarine cone following the eruption determined to be 40 m during a 2007 survey; the crater of the 2001 eruption was breached to the E.

Information Contacts: Jan Steffen, Communication and Media, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, Kiel, Germany; Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Klyuchevskoy is part of the Klyuchevskaya volcanic group in northern Kamchatka and is one of the most frequently active volcanoes of the region. Eruptions produce lava flows, ashfall, and lahars originating from summit and flank activity. This report summarizes activity during October 2019 through May 2020, and is based on reports by the Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) and satellite data.

There were no activity reports from 1 to 22 October, but gas emissions were visible in satellite images. At 1020 on 24 October (2220 on 23 October UTC) KVERT noted that there was a small ash component in the ash plume from erosion of the conduit, with the plume reaching 130 km ENE. The Aviation Colour Code was raised from Green to Yellow, then to Orange the following day. An ash plume continued on the 25th to 5-7 km altitude and extending 15 km SE and 70 km SW and reached 30 km ESE on the 26th. Similar activity continued through to the end of the month.

Moderate gas emissions continued during 1-19 November, but the summit was obscured by clouds. Strong nighttime incandescence was visible at the crater during the 10-11 November and thermal anomalies were detected on 8 and 10-13 November. Explosions produced ash plumes up to 6 km altitude on the 20-21st and Strombolian activity was reported during 20-22 November. Degassing continued from 23 November through 12 December, and a thermal anomaly was visible on the days when the summit was not covered by clouds. An ash plume was reported moving to the NW on the 13th, and degassing with a thermal anomaly and intermittent Strombolian activity then resumed, continuing through to the end of December with an ash plume reported on the 30th.

Gas-and-steam plumes continued into January 2020 with incandescence noted when the summit was clear (figure 33). Strombolian activity was reported again starting on the 3rd. A weak ash plume produced on the 6th extended 55 km E, and on the 21st an ash plume reached 5-5.5 km altitude and extended 190 km NE (figure 34). Another ash plume the next day rose to the same altitude and extended 388 km NE. During 23-29 Strombolian activity continued, and Vulcanian activity produced ash plumes up to 5.5 altitude, extending to 282 km E on the 30th, and 145 km E on the 31st.

Figure 33. Incandescence and degassing were visible at Klyuchevskoy through January 2020, seen here on the 11th. Courtesy of KVERT.

Figure 34. A low ash plume at Klyuchevskoy on 21 January 2020 extended 190 km NE. Courtesy of KVERT.

Strombolian activity continued throughout February with occasional explosions producing ash plumes up to 5.5 km altitude, as well as gas-and-steam plumes and a persistent thermal anomaly with incandescence visible at night. Starting in late February thermal anomalies were detected much more frequently, and with higher energy output compared to the previous year (figure 35). A lava fountain was reported on 1 March with the material falling back into the summit crater. Strombolian activity continued through early March. Lava fountaining was reported again on the 8th with ejecta landing in the crater and down the flanks (figure 36). A strong persistent gas-and-steam plume containing some ash continued along with Strombolian activity through 25 March (figure 37), with Vulcanian activity noted on the 20th and 25th. Strombolian and Vulcanian activity was reported through the end of March.

Figure 35. This MIROVA thermal energy plot for Klyuchevskoy for the year ending 29 April 2020 (log radiative power) shows intermittent thermal anomalies leading up to more sustained energy detected from February through March, then steadily increasing energy through April 2020. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 36. Strombolian explosions at Klyuchevskoy eject incandescent ash and gas, and blocks and bombs onto the upper flanks on 8 and 10 March 2020. Courtesy of IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Figure 37. Weak ash emission from the Klyuchevskoy summit crater are dispersed by wind on 19 and 29 March 2020, with ash depositing on the flanks. Courtesy of IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Activity was dominantly Strombolian during 1-5 April and included intermittent Vulcanian explosions from the 6th onwards, with ash plumes reaching 6 km altitude. On 18 April a lava flow began moving down the SE flank (figures 38). A report on the 26th reported explosions from lava-water interactions with avalanches from the active lava flow, which continued to move down the SE flank and into the Apakhonchich chute (figures 39 and 40). This continued throughout April and May with sustained Strombolian and intermittent Vulcanian activity at the summit (figures 41 and 42).

Figure 38. Strombolian activity produced ash plumes and a lava flow down the SE flank of Klyuchevskoy on 18 April 2020. Courtesy of IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Figure 39. A lava flow descends the SW flank of Klyuchevskoy and a gas plume is dispersed by winds on 21 April 2020. Courtesy of Yu. Demyanchuk, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Figure 40. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite images show the progression of the Klyuchevskoy lava flow from the summit crater down the SE flank from 19-29 April 2020. Associated gas plumes are dispersed in various directions. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 41. Strombolian activity at Klyuchevskoy ejects incandescent ejecta, gas, and ash above the summit on 27 April 2020. Courtesy of D. Bud'kov, IVS FEB RAS, KVERT.

Figure 42. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite images of Klyuchevskoy show the progression of the SE flank lava flow through May 2020, with associated gas plumes being dispersed in multiple directions. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. Klyuchevskoy (also spelled Kliuchevskoi) is Kamchatka's highest and most active volcano. Since its origin about 6000 years ago, the beautifully symmetrical, 4835-m-high basaltic stratovolcano has produced frequent moderate-volume explosive and effusive eruptions without major periods of inactivity. It rises above a saddle NE of sharp-peaked Kamen volcano and lies SE of the broad Ushkovsky massif. More than 100 flank eruptions have occurred during the past roughly 3000 years, with most lateral craters and cones occurring along radial fissures between the unconfined NE-to-SE flanks of the conical volcano between 500 m and 3600 m elevation. The morphology of the 700-m-wide summit crater has been frequently modified by historical eruptions, which have been recorded since the late-17th century. Historical eruptions have originated primarily from the summit crater, but have also included numerous major explosive and effusive eruptions from flank craters.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Nyamuragira (also known as Nyamulagira) is located in the Virunga Volcanic Province (VVP) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and consists of a lava lake that reappeared in the summit crater in mid-April 2018. Volcanism has been characterized by lava emissions, thermal anomalies, seismicity, and gas-and-steam emissions. This report summarizes activity during December 2019 through May 2020 using information from monthly reports by the Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG) and satellite data.

According to OVG, intermittent eruptive activity was detected in the lava lake of the central crater during December 2019 and January-April 2020, which also resulted in few seismic events. MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data shows thermal anomalies within the summit crater that varied in both frequency and power between August 2019 and mid-March 2020, but very few were recorded afterward through late May (figure 88). Thermal hotspots identified by MODVOLC from 15 December 2019 through March 2020 were mainly located in the active central crater, with only three hotspots just outside the SW crater rim (figure 89). Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery also showed activity within the summit crater during January-May 2020, but by mid-March the thermal anomaly had visibly decreased in power (figure 90).

Figure 88. The MIROVA graph of thermal activity (log radiative power) at Nyamuragira during 27 July through May 2020 shows variably strong, intermittent thermal anomalies with a variation in power and frequency from August 2019 to mid-March 2020. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 89. Map showing the number of MODVOLC hotspot pixels at Nyamuragira from 1 December 2019 t0 31 May 2020. 37 pixels were registered within the summit crater while 3 were detected just outside the SW crater rim. Courtesy of HIGP-MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.

Figure 90. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery (bands 12, 11, 8A) confirmed ongoing thermal activity (bright yellow-orange) at Nyamuragira from February into April 2020. The strength of the thermal anomaly in the summit crater decreased by late March 2020, but was still visible. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. Africa's most active volcano, Nyamuragira, is a massive high-potassium basaltic shield about 25 km N of Lake Kivu. Also known as Nyamulagira, it has generated extensive lava flows that cover 1500 km2 of the western branch of the East African Rift. The broad low-angle shield volcano contrasts dramatically with the adjacent steep-sided Nyiragongo to the SW. The summit is truncated by a small 2 x 2.3 km caldera that has walls up to about 100 m high. Historical eruptions have occurred within the summit caldera, as well as from the numerous fissures and cinder cones on the flanks. A lava lake in the summit crater, active since at least 1921, drained in 1938, at the time of a major flank eruption. Historical lava flows extend down the flanks more than 30 km from the summit, reaching as far as Lake Kivu.

Information Contacts: Information contacts: Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG), Departement de Geophysique, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles, Lwiro, D.S. Bukavu, DR Congo; MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/exp.

Nyiragongo is located in the Virunga Volcanic Province (VVP) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, part of the western branch of the East African Rift System and contains a 1.2 km-wide summit crater with a lava lake that has been active since at least 1971. Volcanism has been characterized by strong and frequent thermal anomalies, incandescence, gas-and-steam emissions, and seismicity. This report summarizes activity during December 2019 through May 2020 using information from monthly reports by the Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG) and satellite data.

In the December 2019 monthly report, OVG stated that the level of the lava lake had increased. This level of the lava lake was maintained for the duration of the reporting period, according to later OVG monthly reports. Seismicity increased starting in November 2019 and was detected in the NE part of the crater, but it decreased by mid-April 2020. SO₂ emissions increased in January 2020 to roughly 7,000 tons/day but decreased again near the end of the month. OVG reported that SO₂ emissions rose again in February to roughly 8,500 tons/day before declining to about 6,000 tons/day. Unlike in the previous report (BGVN 44:12), incandescence was visible during the day in the active lava lake and activity at the small eruptive cone within the 1.2-km-wide summit crater has since increased, consisting of incandescence and some lava fountaining (figure 72). A field survey was conducted on 3-4 March where an OVG team observed active lava fountains and ejecta that produced Pele’s hair from the small eruptive cone (figure 73). During this survey, OVG reported that the level of the lava lake had reached the second terrace, which was formed on 17 January 2002 and represents remnants of the lava lake at different eruption stages. There, the open surface lava lake was observed; gas-and-steam emissions accompanied both the active lava lake and the small eruptive cone (figures 72 and 73).

Figure 72. Webcam image of Nyiragongo in February 2020 showing an open lava lake surface and incandescence from the active crater cone within the 1.2 km-wide summit crater visible during the day, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions. Courtesy of OVG (Rapport OVG February 2020).

Figure 73. Webcam image of Nyiragongo on 4 March 2020 showing an open lava lake surface and incandescence from the active crater cone within the 1.2 km-wide summit crater visible during the day, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions. Courtesy of OVG (Rapport OVG Mars 2020).

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data continued to show frequent strong thermal anomalies within 5 km of the summit crater through May 2020 (figure 74). Similarly, the MODVOLC algorithm reported multiple thermal hotspots almost daily within the summit crater between December 2019 and May 2020. These thermal signatures were also observed in Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery within the summit crater (figure 75).

Figure 74. Thermal anomalies at Nyiragongo from 27 July through May 2020 as recorded by the MIROVA system (Log Radiative Power) were frequent and strong. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 75. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery (bands 12, 11, 8A) showed ongoing thermal activity (bright yellow-orange) in the summit crater at Nyiragongo during January through April 2020. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. One of Africa's most notable volcanoes, Nyiragongo contained a lava lake in its deep summit crater that was active for half a century before draining catastrophically through its outer flanks in 1977. The steep slopes of a stratovolcano contrast to the low profile of its neighboring shield volcano, Nyamuragira. Benches in the steep-walled, 1.2-km-wide summit crater mark levels of former lava lakes, which have been observed since the late-19th century. Two older stratovolcanoes, Baruta and Shaheru, are partially overlapped by Nyiragongo on the north and south. About 100 parasitic cones are located primarily along radial fissures south of Shaheru, east of the summit, and along a NE-SW zone extending as far as Lake Kivu. Many cones are buried by voluminous lava flows that extend long distances down the flanks, which is characterized by the eruption of foiditic rocks. The extremely fluid 1977 lava flows caused many fatalities, as did lava flows that inundated portions of the major city of Goma in January 2002.

Information Contacts: Observatoire Volcanologique de Goma (OVG), Departement de Geophysique, Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles, Lwiro, D.S. Bukavu, DR Congo; MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Kavachi is a submarine volcano located in the Solomon Islands south of Gatokae and Vangunu islands. Volcanism is frequently active, but rarely observed. The most recent eruptions took place during 2014, which consisted of an ash eruption, and during 2016, which included phreatomagmatic explosions (BGVN 42:03). This reporting period covers December 2016-April 2020 primarily using satellite data.

Activity at Kavachi is often only observed through satellite images, and frequently consists of discolored submarine plumes for which the cause is uncertain. On 1 January 2018 a slight yellow discoloration in the water is seen extending to the E from a specific point (figure 20). Similar faint plumes were observed on 16 January, 25 February, 2 March, 26 April, 6 May, and 25 June 2018. No similar water discoloration was noted during 2019, though clouds may have obscured views.

Figure 20. Satellite images from Sentinel-2 revealed intermittent faint water discoloration (yellow) at Kavachi during the first half of 2018, as seen here on 1 January (top left), 25 February (top right), 26 April (bottom left), and 25 June (bottom right). Images with “Natural color” rendering (bands 4, 3, 2); courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Activity resumed in 2020, showing more discolored water in satellite imagery. The first instance occurred on 16 March, where a distinct plume extended from a specific point to the SE. On 25 April a satellite image showed a larger discolored plume in the water that spread over about 30 km², encompassing the area around Kavachi (figure 21). Another image on 30 April showed a thin ribbon of discolored water extending about 50 km W of the vent.

Figure 21. Sentinel-2 satellite images of a discolored plume (yellow) at Kavachi beginning on 16 March (top left) with a significant large plume on 25 April (right), which remained until 30 April (bottom left). Images with “Natural color” rendering (bands 4, 3, 2); courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. Named for a sea-god of the Gatokae and Vangunu peoples, Kavachi is one of the most active submarine volcanoes in the SW Pacific, located in the Solomon Islands south of Vangunu Island. Sometimes referred to as Rejo te Kvachi ("Kavachi's Oven"), this shallow submarine basaltic-to-andesitic volcano has produced ephemeral islands up to 1 km long many times since its first recorded eruption during 1939. Residents of the nearby islands of Vanguna and Nggatokae (Gatokae) reported "fire on the water" prior to 1939, a possible reference to earlier eruptions. The roughly conical edifice rises from water depths of 1.1-1.2 km on the north and greater depths to the SE. Frequent shallow submarine and occasional subaerial eruptions produce phreatomagmatic explosions that eject steam, ash, and incandescent bombs. On a number of occasions lava flows were observed on the ephemeral islands.

Information Contacts: Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Kuchinoerabujima encompasses a group of young stratovolcanoes located in the northern Ryukyu Islands. All historical eruptions have originated from the Shindake cone, with the exception of a lava flow that originated from the S flank of the Furudake cone. The most recent previous eruptive period took place during October 2018-February 2019 and primarily consisted of weak explosions, ash plumes, and ashfall. The current eruption began on 11 January 2020 after nearly a year of dominantly gas-and-steam emissions. Volcanism for this reporting period from March 2019 to April 2020 included explosions, ash plumes, SO₂ emissions, and ashfall. The primary source of information for this report comes from monthly and annual reports from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and advisories from the Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC). Activity has been limited to Kuchinoerabujima's Shindake Crater.

Volcanism at Kuchinoerabujima was relatively low during March through December 2019, according to JMA. During this time, SO₂ emissions ranged from 100 to 1,000 tons/day. Gas-and-steam emissions were frequently observed throughout the entire reporting period, rising to a maximum height of 1.1 km above the crater on 13 December 2019. Satellite imagery from Sentinel-2 showed gas-and-steam and occasional ash emissions rising from the Shindake crater throughout the reporting period (figure 7). Though JMA reported thermal anomalies occurring on 29 January and continuing through late April 2020, Sentinel-2 imagery shows the first thermal signature appearing on 26 April.

Figure 7. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite images showed gas-and-steam and ash emissions rising from Kuchinoerabujima. Some ash deposits can be seen on 6 February 2020 (top right). A thermal anomaly appeared on 26 April 2020 (bottom right). Sentinel-2 atmospheric penetration (bands 12, 11, 8A) images courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

An eruption on 11 January 2020 at 1505 ejected material 300 m from the crater and produced ash plumes that rose 2 km above the crater rim, extending E, according to JMA. The eruption continued through 12 January until 0730. The resulting ash plumes rose 400 m above the crater, drifting SW while the SO₂ emissions measured 1,300 tons/day. Ashfall was reported on Yakushima Island (15 km E). Minor eruptive activity was reported during 17-20 January which produced gray-white plumes that rose 300-500 m above the crater. On 23 January, seismicity increased, and an eruption produced an ash plume that rose 1.2 km altitude, according to a Tokyo VAAC report, resulting in ashfall 2 km NE of the crater. A small explosion was detected on 24 January, followed by an increase in the number of earthquakes during 25-26 January (65-71 earthquakes per day were registered). Another small eruptive event detected on 27 January at 0148 was accompanied by a volcanic tremor and a change in tilt data. During the month of January, some inflation was detected at the base on the volcano and a total of 347 earthquakes were recorded. The SO₂ emissions ranged from 200-1,600 tons/day.

An eruption on 1 February 2020 produced an eruption column that rose less than 1 km altitude and extended SE and SW (figure 8), according to the Tokyo VAAC report. On 3 February, an eruption from the Shindake crater at 0521 produced an ash plume that rose 7 km above the crater and ejected material as far as 600 m away. As a result, a pyroclastic flow formed, traveling 900-1,500 m SW. The previous pyroclastic flow that was recorded occurred on 29 January 2019. Ashfall was confirmed in the N part of Yakushima Island with a large amount in Miyanoura (32 km ESE) and southern Tanegashima. The SO₂ emissions measured 1,700 tons/day during this event.

Figure 8. Webcam images from the Honmura west surveillance camera of an ash plume rising from Kuchinoerabujima on 1 February 2020. Courtesy of JMA (Weekly bulletin report 509, February 2020).

Intermittent small eruptive events occurred during 5-9 February; field observations showed a large amount of ashfall on the SE flank which included lapilli that measured up to 2 cm in diameter. Additionally, thermal images showed 5-km-long pyroclastic flow deposits on the SW flank. An eruption on 9 February produced an ash plume that rose 1.2 km altitude, drifting SE. On 13 February a small eruption was detected in the Shindake crater at 1211, producing gray-white plumes that rose 300 m above the crater, drifting NE. Small eruptive events also occurred during 20-21 February, resulting in gas-and-steam emissions that rose 200 m above the crater. During the month of February, some horizontal extension was observed since January 2020 using GNSS data. The total number of earthquakes during this month drastically increased to 1225 compared to January. The SO₂ emissions ranged from 300-1,700 tons/day.

By 2 March 2020, seismicity decreased, and activity declined. Gas-and-steam emissions continued infrequently for the duration of the reporting period. The SO₂ emissions during March ranged from 700-2,100 tons/day, the latter of which occurred on 15 March. Seismicity increased again on 27 March. During 5-8 April 2020, small eruptive events were detected, generating ash plumes that rose 900 m above the crater (figure 9). The SO₂ emissions on 6 April reached 3,200 tons/day, the maximum measurement for this reporting period. These small eruptive events continued from 13-20 and 23-25 April within the Shindake crater, producing gray-white plumes that rose 300-800 m above the crater.

Figure 9. Webcam images from the Honmura Nishi (top) and Honmura west (bottom) surveillance cameras of ash plumes rising from Kuchinoerabujima on 6 March and 5 April 2020. Courtesy of JMA (Weekly bulletin report 509, March and April 2020).

Geologic Background. A group of young stratovolcanoes forms the eastern end of the irregularly shaped island of Kuchinoerabujima in the northern Ryukyu Islands, 15 km W of Yakushima. The Furudake, Shindake, and Noikeyama cones were erupted from south to north, respectively, forming a composite cone with multiple craters. All historical eruptions have occurred from Shindake, although a lava flow from the S flank of Furudake that reached the coast has a very fresh morphology. Frequent explosive eruptions have taken place from Shindake since 1840; the largest of these was in December 1933. Several villages on the 4 x 12 km island are located within a few kilometers of the active crater and have suffered damage from eruptions.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 1-3-4 Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), 1-3-4 Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://ds.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vaac/data/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Soputan is a stratovolcano located in the northern arm of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. Previous eruptive periods were characterized by ash explosions, lava flows, and Strombolian eruptions. The most recent eruption occurred during October-December 2018, which consisted mostly of ash plumes and some summit incandescence (BGVN 44:01). This report updates information for January 2019-April 2020 characterized by two ash plumes and gas-and-steam emissions. The primary source of information come from the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG) and the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC).

Activity during January 2019-April 2020 was relatively low; three faint thermal anomalies were observed at the summit at Soputan in satellite imagery for a total of three days on 2 and 4 January, and 1 October 2019 (figure 17). The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) based on analysis of MODIS data detected 12 distal hotspots and six low-power hotspots within 5 km of the summit during August to early October 2019. A single distal thermal hotspot was detected in early March 2020. In March, activity primarily consisted of white to gray gas-and-steam plumes that rose 20-100 m above the crater, according to PVMBG. The Darwin VAAC issued a notice on 23 March 2020 that reported an ash plume rose to 4.3 km altitude; minor ash emissions had been visible in a webcam image the previous day (figure 18). A second notice was issued on 2 April, where an ash plume was observed rising 2.1 km altitude and drifting W.

Figure 17. Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery detected a total of three thermal hotspots (bright yellow-orange) at the summit of Soputan on 2 and 4 January and 1 October 2019. Sentinel-2 atmospheric penetration (bands 12, 11, 8A) images courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 18. Minor ash emissions were seen rising from Soputan on 22 March 2020. Courtesy of MAGMA Indonesia.

Geologic Background. The Soputan stratovolcano on the southern rim of the Quaternary Tondano caldera on the northern arm of Sulawesi Island is one of Sulawesi's most active volcanoes. The youthful, largely unvegetated volcano is located SW of Riendengan-Sempu, which some workers have included with Soputan and Manimporok (3.5 km ESE) as a volcanic complex. It was constructed at the southern end of a SSW-NNE trending line of vents. During historical time the locus of eruptions has included both the summit crater and Aeseput, a prominent NE-flank vent that formed in 1906 and was the source of intermittent major lava flows until 1924.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); MAGMA Indonesia, Kementerian Energi dan Sumber Daya Mineral (URL: https://magma.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Heard Island is located on the Kerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean and contains Big Ben, a snow-covered stratovolcano with intermittent volcanism reported since 1910. Due to its remote location, visual observations are rare; therefore, thermal anomalies and hotspots detected by satellite-based instruments are the primary source of information. This report updates activity from October 2019 to April 2020.

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data showed three prominent periods of strong thermal anomaly activity during this reporting period: late October 2019, December 2019, and the end of April 2020 (figure 41). These thermal anomalies were relatively strong and occurred within 5 km of the summit. Similarly, the MODVOLC algorithm reported a total of six thermal hotspots during 28 October, 1 November 2019, and 26 April 2020.

Figure 41. Thermal anomalies at Heard from 29 April 2019 through April 2020 as recorded by the MIROVA system (Log Radiative Power) were strong and frequent in late October, during December 2019, and at the end of April 2020. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Six thermal satellite images ranging from late October 2019 to late March showed evidence of active lava at the summit (figure 42). These images show hot material, possibly a lava flow, extending SW from the summit; a hotspot also remained at the summit. Cloud cover was pervasive during the majority of this reporting period, especially in April 2020, though gas-and-steam emissions were visible on 25 April through the clouds.

Figure 42. Thermal satellite images of Heard Island’s Big Ben showing strong thermal signatures representing a lava flow in the SW direction from 28 October to 17 December 2019. These thermal anomalies are located NE from Mawson Peak. A faint thermal anomaly is also captured on 26 March 2020. Satellite images with atmospheric penetration (bands 12, 11, and 8A), courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Geologic Background. Heard Island on the Kerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean consists primarily of the emergent portion of two volcanic structures. The large glacier-covered composite basaltic-to-trachytic cone of Big Ben comprises most of the island, and the smaller Mt. Dixon lies at the NW tip of the island across a narrow isthmus. Little is known about the structure of Big Ben because of its extensive ice cover. The historically active Mawson Peak forms the island's high point and lies within a 5-6 km wide caldera breached to the SW side of Big Ben. Small satellitic scoria cones are mostly located on the northern coast. Several subglacial eruptions have been reported at this isolated volcano, but observations are infrequent and additional activity may have occurred.

Information Contacts: MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Nevados de Chillán is a complex of late-Pleistocene to Holocene stratovolcanoes constructed in the Chilean Central Andes. The Nuevo and Arrau craters are adjacent vents on the NW flank of the cone of the large stratovolcano referred to as Volcán Viejo. An eruption started with a phreatic explosion and ash emission on 8 January 2016 from a new crater on the E flank of Nuevo. Explosions continued through September 2017 with ash plumes rising several kilometers and Strombolian activity sending ejecta hundreds of meters (BGVN 42:10). This report covers continuing activity from September 2017-May 2018. Information for this report is provided by Chile's Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería (SERNAGEOMIN)-Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur (OVDAS), Oficina Nacional de Emergencia-Ministerio del Interior (ONEMI), and by the Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC).

About 150 ash-bearing explosions were recorded during September and October 2017, with plumes rising almost 2 km above the summit. Activity decreased during the second half of October, and no ash plumes were recorded during November. A significant increase in activity in early December led to over 200 explosions with ash emissions. An overflight on 21 December 2017 produced images of a fissure at the bottom of the new crater. The presence of a growing lava dome in the crater was confirmed in early January 2018. Frequent Strombolian explosions produced nighttime incandescence at the summit and down the flanks. Hundreds of ash-bearing explosions occurred during February 2018; the largest plume rose 2.5 km above the summit, and many smaller pulses produced ash and steam that rose 1.5 km. Sporadic incandescence at night and continued explosions of magmatic gases were typical during March 2018. A large explosion on 31 March coincided with the first appearance of a low-level MODIS thermal anomaly in the MIROVA data, and incandescence from explosions at night indicated that the dome continued to grow during April and May. SERNAGEOMIN reported that the top of the lava dome was visible from the E flank for the first time at the end of May 2018.

Activity during September-December 2017. SERNAGEOMIN reported 117 ash-bearing explosions between 16 and 30 September 2017 (figure 17). The one that released the most energy occurred on 19 September. The plumes of steam and ash rose up to 1,800 m above the crater. The Buenos Aires VAAC observed a narrow plume of ash in satellite imagery moving N at 3.9 km altitude and dissipating rapidly on 15 September, and a similar plume moving SE near the summit on 26 September 2017.

Figure 17. Over 100 ash-bearing explosions were reported at Nevados de Chillán during late September 2017, including ones on 15 September (upper left), 20 September (upper right), 23 September (lower left) and 24 September (lower right). Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

During the first two weeks of October 2017 there were 30 ash-bearing explosions recorded. The Buenos Aires VAAC reported small sporadic puffs of ash on 6 October 2017 that were visible in the webcam (figure 18), but not in satellite data, and a similar dense but short-lived plume on 14 October. SERNAGEOMIN reported a series of pulsating low-energy explosions visible in the webcam that drifted SW on 11 and 12 October 2017, and rose no more than 1 km above the summit.. Only two ash-bearing explosions were recorded during the second half of the month. The volcano was much quieter during November; plumes of steam were observed rising only 100 m above the summit throughout the month, with no ash-bearing plumes reported.

Figure 18. Ash plumes at Nevados de Chillán on 6 (left) and 11 (right) October 2017 were two of the 30 plumes recorded during the first half of October. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

A significant increase in activity in early December 2017 resulted in 245 explosions associated with ash emissions during the first two weeks, some rising as high as 3,000 m above the summit. The Buenos Aires VAAC reported a puff of ash on 1 December that rose to 3.7 km altitude and drifted S, dissipating rapidly. The next day another plume rose slightly higher, to 4.3 km. A dense emission on 4 December rose to 4.9 km and drifted SE before dissipating in a few hours and was not visible in satellite data. On 11 and 14 December, short-lived emissions rose to 4.3 km (figure 19). A yellow cloud of sulfur formed on 11 December within 300 m of the active crater. The webcams also recorded sporadic nighttime incandescence during increased explosions in the early morning of 14 December. Continuous steam emissions with pulses of minor ash were first noted on 16 December; they were visible in satellite imagery the next day at 3.9-4.3 km altitude drifting NE, and by 18 December, consisted only of water vapor.

Figure 19. An increase in explosive activity at Nevados de Chillán in December 2017 resulted in numerous explosions with ash plumes including on 1 December (upper left), 2 December (upper right), 4 December (lower left), and 11 December (lower right). Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

In a special report released on 19 December, OVDAS-SERNAGEOMIN reported an increase in surface activity over the previous three days, recording minor explosions averaging four per hour, and seismic pulses lasting 5-10 minutes; they also noted harmonic tremor with the increase in explosion frequency. A detailed review of images taken during an overflight on 21 December revealed a fissure 30-40 m long trending NW at the bottom of the crater. Incandescence at night was regularly observed after 20 December (figure 20), and ash emissions rose to 3,000 m above the summit during the second half of the month.

Figure 20. Phreatic explosions with steam and minor ash were common at Nevados de Chillán during the last two weeks of December 2017. Ash emissions and pyroclastic flows (top image) were noted during 12-19 December, and numerous incandescent blocks accompanied the explosions on 28 December (bottom image). Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

Activity during January-April 2018. SERNAGEOMIN volcanologists identified a growing lava dome within the new crater during two overflights on 9 and 12 January 2018 (figures 21); it was emerging from the fissure first identified on 21 December. During the first two weeks of January SERNAGEOMIN reported 1,027 pulsating explosions associated primarily with magmatic gases, and very little ash that rose up to 1,000 m above the summit. Confirmed ash emissions were reported on 11 January at 4.3 km altitude faintly visible moving SE in satellite imagery, according to the Buenos Aires VAAC. Nighttime incandescence from the growing dome was periodically observed (figure 22). Based on the overflight data and satellite imagery, they calculated a growth rate for the dome of 1,360 m³ per day. They estimated the size at 37,000 m³ by mid-month.

Figure 21. During an overflight at Nevados de Chillán on 9 January 2018, SERNAGEOMIN scientists observed the growing dome within the crater. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

Figure 22. Incandescence at night increased from the growing dome at Nevados de Chillán on 13 January 2018. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

Overflights on 23 and 31 January measured temperatures of 305-480°C over the surface of the dome, with the highest values at the fissure. The growth rate calculated after these overflights was 2,540 m³ per day. The webcam revealed emissions of ash and water vapor during the second half of the month that rose less than 1,000 m above the summit crater.

An explosion on 2 February 2018 sent an ash plume to 2,500 m above the summit (figure 23). Vibrations from the explosion were reported in Las Trancas (10 km) and at the Gran Hotel Termas de Chillan (5 km). SERNAGEOMIN began referring to the active crater as Nicanor, and the dome was named Gil-Cruz. During the first two weeks of February, 840 explosions associated with plumes of magmatic gases were reported. The plumes generally rose as high as 1,500 m above the summit and were often accompanied by incandescence at night. Two overflights on 7 and 14 February recorded temperatures of 500 and 550°C. SERNAGEOMIN determined a dome growth rate of 1,389 m³ per day, and a total volume of 82,500 m³ by mid-month. At least four explosions on 14 February were characterized by two simultaneous plumes, one of white steam and the other darker with a higher ash content according to SERNAGEOMIN. The highest plume that day reached 1,200 m above the summit crater. The Buenos Aires VAAC also reported a small pulse of ash on 14 February that rose to 4.6 km altitude and drifted SE. The dome continued to grow slowly during the rest of February, with a small increase in size noted during a 22 February flyover. Plumes of mostly water vapor with minor ash rose a maximum of 1,080 m above the summit during the hundreds of small explosions that took place.

Figure 23. A substantial explosion on 2 February 2018 at Nevados de Chillán sent an ash plume 2,500 m above the summit and generated vibrations that were felt 10 km from the summit. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

Sporadic incandescence at night and continued explosions of magmatic gases were typical during March 2018, with plume heights reaching 2,000 m over the Nicanor crater. During an overflight on 11 March, a temperature of 330°C was measured around the Gil-Cruz dome, which had grown to a volume of about 100,000 m³ but still remained below the crater rim. Morphological changes in the still-slowly growing dome included fracture lines and unstable large vertical blocks. A significant decrease in seismic energy was noted beginning on 24 March that ended when two larger explosions occurred on 30 and 31 March (figure 24).

Figure 24. A substantial explosion on 31 March 2018 at Nevados de Chillán generated distinct ash and steam plumes (top) and sent several large blocks down the flanks (bottom). Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

During an overflight on 3 April 2018, scientists observed energetic pulses of steam and minor ash from the central NW-SE trending fissure inside the crater. They noted that lapilli from explosions had been ejected as far as 1 km from the fissure, and that the Gil-Cruz dome had increased in volume since 11 March; they also observed an area of subsidence on the top of the growing dome (figure 25). The dome was expanding toward the E side of the crater, and the top of the dome rose above the crater rim. They measured a maximum temperature of 670°C on the surface of the dome. The decrease in daily seismicity, the larger explosions of the previous days, and the increased size of the dome with greater risk of collapse, pyroclastic flows, and lahars, all led SERNAGEOMIN to raise the alert level at Chillan to Orange on 5 April 2018.

Figure 25. The growing lava dome at Nevados de Chillán, referred to as Gil-Cruz, had an active steam plume at the center when photographed by SERNAGEOMIN during an overflight on 3 April 2018. Courtesy of SERNAGEOMIN.

The Buenos Aires VAAC reported continuous emissions of steam and gas with minor ash along with a small pulse of ash on 2 April 2018. Low-altitude plumes of mostly water vapor were common throughout April 2018. Incandescence from explosions was visible on clear nights during the month, and ejecta rose as high as 250 m above the crater and was scattered around the crater rim. Seismicity remained constant at moderate levels related to the repeated explosions and the growth of the dome. A faint ash plume could be seen in visible satellite imagery on 18 April at 3.7 km altitude drifting E.

Observations reported on 1 May 2018 from the previous flyover indicated that the rate of growth of the dome had slowed to about 690 m³ per day, and the estimated volume had grown to about 150,000 m³. Activity remained at similar levels throughout May 2018. Seismic instruments recorded long-period seismicity and tremor episodes similar to previous months that corresponded with surface explosions and the extrusion of the lava dome. Seismic energy levels were moderate but fluctuated at times. Plumes of predominantly water vapor with minor gas rose a few hundred meters above the summit drifting generally S or SE before dissipating. Incandescence was often observed on clear nights, accompanied by ejection of incandescent blocks that were observed generally 100 to 150 m above the active crater. A larger explosive event took place on 7 May. Occasional plumes with minor ash were reported on 11 May. SERNAGEOMIN reported on 24 May 2018 that the top of the lava dome was visible from the E flank.

Geologic Background. The compound volcano of Nevados de Chillán is one of the most active of the Central Andes. Three late-Pleistocene to Holocene stratovolcanoes were constructed along a NNW-SSE line within three nested Pleistocene calderas, which produced ignimbrite sheets extending more than 100 km into the Central Depression of Chile. The largest stratovolcano, dominantly andesitic, Cerro Blanco (Volcán Nevado), is located at the NW end of the group. Volcán Viejo (Volcán Chillán), which was the main active vent during the 17th-19th centuries, occupies the SE end. The new Volcán Nuevo lava-dome complex formed between 1906 and 1945 between the two volcanoes and grew to exceed Volcán Viejo in elevation. The Volcán Arrau dome complex was constructed SE of Volcán Nuevo between 1973 and 1986 and eventually exceeded its height.

Information Contacts: Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, (SERNAGEOMIN), Observatorio Volcanológico de Los Andes del Sur (OVDAS), Avda Sta María No. 0104, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.sernageomin.cl/); Oficina Nacional de Emergencia - Ministerio del Interior (ONEMI), Beaucheff 1637/1671, Santiago, Chile (URL: http://www.onemi.cl/); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/).

The most recent eruption at Ebeko, a remote volcano in the Kuril Islands, began in October 2016 (BGVN 42:08) with explosive eruptions accompanied by ashfall. Frequent ash explosions were observed through November 2017 and the eruption remained ongoing at that time (BGVN 43:03). Activity consisting of explosive eruptions, ash plumes, and ashfalls continued during December 2017 through May 2018 (table 6). Eruptions were observed by residents in Severo-Kurilsk (about 7 km E), by volcanologists, and based on satellite imagery. The Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT) is responsible for monitoring Ebeko, and is the primary source of information. The Aviation Color Code (ACC) remained at Orange throughout this reporting period. This color is the second highest level of the four color scale.

Table 6. Summary of activity at Ebeko volcano from December 2017 to May 2018. Aviation Color Code (ACC) is a 4-color scale. Data courtesy of KVERT

Minor ash explosions were reported throughout the period from December 2017 through May 2018 (figure 17). Minor amounts of ash fell in Severo-Kurilisk at the end of 2017 and into 2018. Ash was reported on 2-4, and 7 December 2017; 15, 16, 18, and 29 January 2018; 8, 17, and18 February; 17 and 21 March; and 6 April. Ash plume altitudes during this reporting period ranged from 1.5 to 3.5 km (table 6); the summit is at 1.1 km.

Figure 17. Explosions from Ebeko sent ash up to an altitude of 1.5 km, or about 400 m above the summit, on 6 February 2018. Courtesy of T. Kotenko (IVS FEB RAS).

Geologic Background. The flat-topped summit of the central cone of Ebeko volcano, one of the most active in the Kuril Islands, occupies the northern end of Paramushir Island. Three summit craters located along a SSW-NNE line form Ebeko volcano proper, at the northern end of a complex of five volcanic cones. Blocky lava flows extend west from Ebeko and SE from the neighboring Nezametnyi cone. The eastern part of the southern crater contains strong solfataras and a large boiling spring. The central crater is filled by a lake about 20 m deep whose shores are lined with steaming solfataras; the northern crater lies across a narrow, low barrier from the central crater and contains a small, cold crescentic lake. Historical activity, recorded since the late-18th century, has been restricted to small-to-moderate explosive eruptions from the summit craters. Intense fumarolic activity occurs in the summit craters, on the outer flanks of the cone, and in lateral explosion craters.

Information Contacts: Kamchatka Volcanic Eruptions Response Team (KVERT), Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/kvert/); Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences (IVS FEB RAS), 9 Piip Blvd., Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia (URL: http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/eng/).

Kirishimayama is a large group of more than 20 Quaternary volcanoes located N of Kagoshima Bay, Japan (figure 22). For the last 1,000 years, repeated eruptions have taken place at two locations in the complex: the Ohachi crater on the W flank of the Takachihomine stratovolcano, and the Shinmoedake stratovolcano 4 km NW of Ohachi. A single eruption was reported in 1768 from the Iwo-yama (Ebino Kogen) dome located on the NW flank of the Karakunidake stratovolcano, about 5 km NW of Shinmoedake.

Figure 22. Subfeatures of the Kirishimayama volcanic complex showing the three areas with activity discussed in this report: Ohachi, Shinmoedake, and Iwo-yama (Ebino Kogen). View is to the SE. Image taken by the Japan Maritime Self Defense Force on 7 October 2014. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity report on Kirishimayama, October, Heisei 26 [2014]).

The last confirmed eruption at the Ohachi crater was in July 1923. Intermittent steam plumes have been observed since then, including in December 2003 (BGVN 33:09), but the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) noted that it had been quiet since 1 December 2007. Shinmoedake has been the site of several short-lived eruptive events since 2008. Most of the events were single-day explosions with ash emissions (BGVN 35:12). A more protracted event from January to September 2011 included numerous explosions with ash plumes, which produced ashfall tens of kilometers away, the growth of a lava dome, ejecta of large blocks, and small pyroclastic flows (BGVN 36:07). Shinmoedake remained quiet until seismicity increased on 23 September 2017, followed by several explosions during October 2017 (BGVN 43:01). Seismic unrest was first reported from the area around Iwo-yama in December 2013, and it has been regularly monitored since that time. This report covers activity from November 2017 through May 2018 and includes new explosive events at Shinmoedake during March-May 2018, an explosive event at Iwo-yama in April 2018, and a brief increase in seismicity at Ohachi in February 2018. Information is provided primarily by the JMA and the Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), with additional satellite data and news media reports.

Summary of activity during November 2017-May 2018. After steam plumes disappeared at Ohachi in mid-2006, only minor intermittent seismicity was reported through 2017. A sudden increase in earthquakes and tremor activity on 9 February 2018 led JMA to raise the 5-level Alert Level system from 1 (potential for increased activity) to 2 (do not approach the crater) for about a month. Activity diminished after the middle of February and Ohachi remained quiet through May 2018, with only a continuing modest thermal anomaly at the crater.

The latest eruptive episode at Shinmoedake, during 11-17 October 2017, generated an SO₂ plume recorded by NASA satellites, caused ashfall up to 100 km away, and created a new vent about 80 m in diameter on the E side of the crater. Intermittent earthquakes and tremors along with low-level steam plumes characterized activity during November 2017-February 2018. A new eruptive episode began on 1 March 2018 with near-constant explosive activity that lasted until 10 March. A new lava flow at the summit was first observed by JMA on 6 March and began to overflow the NW rim of the crater on 9 March. The Tokyo VAAC reported ash plumes over 6 km altitude on 10 March. An explosion on 5 April produced the largest ash plume of the period; it rose to 10.1 km altitude, was visible drifting E for 24 hours, and resulted in significant ashfall in the region. The lava flow had ceased advancing down the NW flank by the end of April. Another explosion on 14 May 2018 generated an ash plume that rose to 7.3 km altitude and caused ashfall 30 km S that covered the roadways.

An increase in seismicity at Iwo-yama in December 2013, followed by a 7-minute-period of tremor activity in August 2014 was the first recorded at the site since 1768. Thermal anomalies and weak fumarolic activity first appeared in December 2015. Seismicity, including intermittent tremor events and larger amplitude earthquakes, gradually increased during 2016 and 2017. Intermittent fumarolic activity and temperature anomalies began to increase measurably in mid-2017. Jets of sediment-laden hot water emerged from several vents early in 2017. A further increase in fumarolic activity and the temperature of the thermal anomalies in February 2018 led JMA to raise the Alert Level at Iwo-yama. Large amplitude earthquakes and a tremor event accompanied an ash-bearing explosion on 19 April 2018 from a vent on the S side of Iwo-yama. The following day, a vent opened 500 m to the W and produced vigorous steam emissions. On 26 April 2018 an explosion from the new vent sent ash 200 m high. Jets of hot water continued at the Iwo-yama vents through May 2018.

Activity at Ohachi during 2003-May 2018. JMA reported tremor activity with epicenters near Ohachi in mid-December 2003 (BGVN 33:09) that was followed by fumarolic activity for a few weeks. Intermittent steam plumes were observed during 2004; on 26 March 2004 a tremor event lasted for four hours and a steam plume rose 800 m above the crater (figure 23). A few periods of microtremor were recorded, and intermittent fumarolic activity was observed with webcams until March 2006, after which most activity ceased. JMA lowered the 5-level Alert Level from 2 (Do not approach the crater) to 1 (Potential for increased activity) on 22 May 2006. Fumarolic activity was not observed after July 2006, and no new thermal activity was reported during a field visit in October 2006. Minor seismicity was reported for a few days during July 2007, and small-amplitude, short-duration tremor activity was occasionally recorded during 2008-2014.

Figure 23. Steam plumes were visible on the NW side of the Ohachi crater at Kirishimayama on 31 March 2004. Courtesy of JMA (JMA Kirishimayama annual report, Heisei 16 (2004)).

Although earthquake activity increased slightly in July 2015, the warning level was not raised, and no surface fumarolic activity was observed during field visits in August and September 2015 (figure 24). Seismic activity remained elevated at Ohachi through February 2016 and then gradually decreased during March. Although tremors were recorded in May and December 2016, there was no change in condition at the site and seismicity continued to decrease; no tremors were recorded during 2017.

Figure 24. No fumarolic activity was visible at the Ohachi crater at Kirishimayama on 18 September 2015 during a site visit. View is to the NW. Courtesy of JMA (JMA Kirishimayama annual report, Heisei 27 (2015)).

Earthquake frequency on the SW side of Ohachi increased during 9-16 February 2018, resulting in 199 seismic events, and tremor activity was also recorded on 9 February. This activity led JMA to increase the Alert Level to 2 on 9 February 2018. In spite of the increased seismic activity, the thermal activity remained unchanged from previous months with continued minor thermal anomalies in the same areas as before (figure 25). Seismicity decreased significantly during March 2018 to only 13 volcanic earthquakes, and no microtremor activity was recorded. Inspections carried out on 11 and 14 March showed no surface changes (figure 26) and resulted in JMA lowering the Alert Level back to 1 on 15 March 2018. Ohachi remained quiet through May 2018.

Figure 25. Thermal anomalies at the Ohachi crater of Kirishimayama were unchanged compared with previous months when measured on 9 February 2018 in this view to the NW. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, February, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 26. An overview looking W of the Ohachi crater at Kirishimayama on 2 March 2018 showed no surface activity after the increased seismicity of February. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Activity at Shinmoedake during August 2008-October 2017. An explosion on 22 August 2008 lasted for about six hours and produced ashfall in Kobayashi City (10 km NE) (BGVN 33:09). Seismicity had increased rapidly a few days prior to the explosion, and then decreased gradually for the remainder of 2008. Other than a brief increase in seismicity in May the following year, only steam plumes rising about 100 m from the crater were reported for 2009.

Seven small ash-bearing explosive events were reported during March-July 2010. Small-amplitude tremor activity on 30 March 2010 was accompanied by a plume that rose 400 m above the crater rim; a small amount of ash fell 400 m to the W of the fumarole within the crater. The webcam on the S rim of the crater captured a grayish plume rising 300 m after a small explosion on 17 April 2010. Another small explosion on 27 May produced a grayish-white plume that rose 100 m above the crater rim and resulted in minor ashfall NE in Kobayashi City. Officials noted a new fumarole on the W flank after this event. Two more explosions on 27 and 28 June 2010 resulted in a small amount of ash deposited 10 km E of Shinmoedake. A small explosion was reported on 5 July. On 10 July, a grayish-white plume, observed in the webcam, rose 100 m above the crater rim after an explosion, and a small low-temperature pyroclastic surge flowed 300 m down the SW slope. GPS instruments recorded minor inflation from December 2009 through September 2010.

A new, more substantial, eruption began at Shinmoedake on 19 January 2011. Activity increased on 26 January with an explosion that released a large volume of ash and pumice and included the growth of a new lava dome (BGVN 35:12, 36:07). Thirteen additional explosions occurred through 1 March 2011. Activity became more intermittent after mid-February, and the last emission was reported on 7 September 2011. Seismicity declined significantly in March 2012 and had returned to background levels by May 2012. With no surface changes and very low seismicity, JMA reduced the Alert Level from 3 to 2 on 22 October 2013, and the only reported activity was steam plumes rising 50-200 m above the crater rim during 2013. The lava dome in the crater remained about 600 m in diameter. Inflation had slowed and stopped after December 2011 but began again around December 2013. Shallow, low-level seismicity during 2014 with epicenters near Shinmoedake was distributed within a few kilometers below the summit; there were no surface changes observed at the crater during several overflights conducted by the Japan Maritime Self Defense Force throughout the year.

Occasional steam plumes rising 400 m above the crater rim were reported during 2015. Volcanic earthquakes were intermittent, with brief increases in activity during March-May and October- December with roughly the same number as the previous year. Inflationary deformation that began around December 2013 ceased in January 2015. A very brief tremor on 1 March 2015 was the first recorded since 1 February 2012. During 2016, occasional steam plumes rose 300 m above the crater. In spite of a seismic swarm on 23 February 2016, and a general increase in seismicity throughout the year, no eruptions occurred, and no surface changes were observed. JMA kept the Alert Level at 2 throughout the year. A small tremor event on 17 September was the only recorded during 2016. Very little activity was reported from January to September 2017; occasional steam plumes were reported rising 400 m above the crater rim. JMA lowered the Alert Level from 2 to 1 on 26 May 2017.

A minor increase in seismicity was observed beginning in July 2017, and was followed by a marked increase on 23 September. After a further increase in frequency and amplitude of earthquakes on 4 October, JMA raised the Alert Level to 2 for Shinmoedake on 5 October 2017. This was followed by an eruption that began on 11 October 2017. A new vent was observed on the E side of the crater during an overflight that same day, and ashfall was reported in numerous communities as far as 90 km NE (BGVN 43:01). A significant SO₂ plume was measured by the OMI instrument on the Aura satellite the following day (figure 27). After raising the Alert Level to 3 on 11 October, JMA expanded the restricted area radius from 2-3 km during 15-31 October.

Figure 27. A significant SO2 plume from the explosion at the Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayama was measured on 12 October 2017 by NASA's OMI instrument on the Aura satellite. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Explosions on 14 October 2017 resulted in confirmed ashfall in Kagoshima city (50 km SW), Takahara Town (15 km E), Kobayashi city (25 km NE), Saito city (55 km NE), Hyuga city (90 km NE), and Misato town (75 km NE). Ongoing explosions continued until 17 October, after which persistent steam plumes were observed rising as high as 600 m above the crater. In an overflight conducted on 23 October JMA scientists noted the new vent was about 80 m in diameter, and ejecta from the vent had formed a small cone around the vent. (figure 28).

Figure 28. Two vents were visible on the E side of the crater in this view to the WNW taken on 23 October 2017 of Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama. The left vent (center front) had formed during the 2011 eruption, and the right vent formed during the 11-17 October 2017 eruption earlier in the month. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, October, Heisei 29 (2017)).

Activity at Shinmoedake during November 2017-March 2018. After the eruption of 11-17 October 2017 seismicity decreased significantly, and no morphological changes were observed for the remainder of the year. Steam plumes rose 300-500 m above the crater during November and December. Short-duration tremors were detected during 25-29 November, along with a slight increase in the number of volcanic earthquakes. A small earthquake swarm recorded during 2-4 December was the only significant seismic activity that month.

Infrequent, large-amplitude earthquakes were recorded during 15-17 January 2018, along with a few short-duration tremor events, the first since 29 November 2017. The earthquakes were located within a 1 km radius of Shinmoedake, around 2-4 km deep. Steam plumes at the crater rose no more than 100 m most days; occasional plumes rising as high as 200 m were noted. An earthquake swarm on 25 February was the first notable event of the month; the steam plumes remained under 100 m above the crater, except for a 500-m-high plume on 21 February. Thermal imaging surveys in late February indicated a modest increase in heat flow from fractures inside the crater and on the W slope compared with previous measurements.

Earthquakes with shallow epicenters below Shinmoedake increased in number early on 1 March 2018 and a new eruptive episode followed a few hours later, leading JMA to increase the restricted zone to 3 km around the crater (figure 29). SO₂ emissions also increased sharply. By the afternoon of 1 March an ash plume rose 1,500 m above the crater, emerging from the vent on the E side and drifting SE. Ashfall was confirmed on 1 March in the area up to 18 km E of the crater. Large blocks of ejecta were observed within the crater on 5 March.

Figure 29. A new eruptive episode at the Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayama began around 1100 on 1 March 2018 with ash emissions emerging from the new vent on the E side of the crater. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, February, Heisei 30 (2018)).

During an overflight on 6 March 2018, JMA witnessed a new lava flow covering a large area on the E side of the crater floor (figure 30). Eighteen explosive eruptions occurred on 6 March and JMA reported that the ash plume rose 2,800 m above the crater (figure 31). Ashfall was confirmed SW of Shinmoedake in Shibushi city (50 km SSE), Tarumizu City (50 km SSW) and Aira City (30 km SW). NASA 's Aqua satellite captured a false color image of the eruption on 6 March showing the ash plume drifting SE and SW from Shinmoedake (figure 32). About 80 flights in and out of nearby Kagoshima airport were canceled.

Figure 30. Lava emerged from the new vent on the E side of the Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama on 6 March 2018 in this view to the W. Plumes of both ash and steam rose from the center and N sides of the crater. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, February, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 31. Ash and steam rose from newly emergent lava inside the summit crater of Shinmoedake at Kirishimayama on 6 March 2018, and disrupted air traffic for most of the day. Courtesy of Kyodo News via AP.

Figure 32. NASA 's Aqua satellite captured a false color image of the eruption from Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama on 6 March 2018 with an ash plume drifting SE and SW. Courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory.

Tremor events occurred continuously over 1-8 March; forty-seven explosions were recorded between 6 and 8 March; they decreased in frequency after the middle of the month. The OMI instrument on the NASA Aura satellite recorded a significant SO₂ plume on 7 March 2018 (figure 33). Geospatial data that had shown a gradual inflation of the Kirishimayama complex since July 2017 showed a sharp deflation during 6-7 March 2018, after which inflation resumed.

Figure 33. An SO2 plume with a density of almost ten Dobson Units (DU) was recorded by the OMI instrument on the Aura satellite on 7 March 2018. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Institute.

During an overflight on 9 March 2018, a staff member from the Geographical Survey Institute observed the lava flow beginning to overflow the NW side of the crater (figure 34). Explosions resulted in ejecta traveling 800 m from the crater on 9 March and an ash plume rising 3,200 m. An increase in the intensity of activity the following day sent ejecta 1,800 m from the vent and generated an ash plume that rose 4,500 m (figure 35); this led JMA to increase the restricted area around the crater to 4 km between 10 and 15 March.

Figure 34. The new lava flow began to overtop the NW side of Shinmoedake crater (left side of crater with steam) at Kirishimayama on 9 March 2018. Photographed by a staff member from the Geographical Survey Institute during a helicopter overflight by the Kyushu Regional Development Bureau. Courtesy of the Geographical Survey Institute (Correspondence on the eruption of Kirishimayama (Shinmoedake) in Heisei 30 (2018), 29 March 2018).

Figure 35. An increase in explosive activity at the Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayama on 10 March 2018 sent an ash plume 4,500 m above the crater (left), and incandescent ejecta 1,800 m from the vent (right). Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

A thermal image taken on 11 March showed that the lava was moving very slowly down the NW flank, advancing only a few tens of meters since 9 March (figure 36). JMA confirmed during an overflight on 14 March that the lava flowing down the NW flank was about 200 m wide. Two explosions on 25 March produced plumes that rose 3,200 and 2,100 m, ejecta that traveled 800 m, and a small pyroclastic flow that advanced about 400 m down the W flank (figure 37). Although analysis of satellite data by Japan's Geographical Survey Institute suggested that the eruption of lava into the crater had ceased by 9 March, it continued to flow slowly down the NW flank for several weeks. The diameter of the flow inside the crater was about 700 m, and it had traveled about 85 m down the NW flank by 28 March (figure 38).

Figure 36. A thermal image taken on 11 March 2018 of the new lava flow in the Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama showed the slow movement of the flow over the NW rim and down the flank a few tens of meters in two days. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 37. Two explosions on 25 March 2018 from Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama produced plumes that rose 3,200 and 2,100 m, ejecta that traveled 800 m, and a small pyroclastic flow that advanced about 400 m down the W flank (foreground). Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 38. Lava was still slowly moving down the NW flank of the Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama on 26 March 2018, and gray ash covered much of the adjacent flank, possibly from a pyroclastic flow the previous day. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

The Tokyo VAAC issued multiple daily reports from 1-15 March 2018, and a few intermittent reports during the rest of the month. JMA usually reports plume heights in meters above the crater and the Tokyo VAAC reports them as altitudes above sea level; conversions are noted where the height or altitude of a plume is exceptional. They reported an ash plume drifting SE on 1 March at 1.5 km altitude; the plume had risen to 2.4 km by the end of the day. The following day a plume was visible in satellite images at 2.1 km altitude drifting E. Continuous emissions drifting NE above 2.4 km altitude were reported on 3 and 4 March. Several explosions generated plumes that were visible in satellite imagery during 5-7 March drifting S, SW, and W at altitudes between 3.0 and 4.6 km. Plumes from larger explosions during 9 and 10 March rose to altitudes between 4.3 and 6.1 km and drifted SE, finally dissipating after about 24 hours. Explosions on 12 and 13 March drifted NE and E at 3.4-4.9 km altitude, with continuous emissions visible in satellite imagery during those days. Two explosions on 24 March produced plumes that drifted SE at 3.7 and 4.9 km altitude, and were visible in satellite imagery until they dissipated the next day.

A strong MIROVA thermal anomaly signal appeared at the beginning of March and slowly tapered off into April. The signal is consistent with the reports of the eruption of lava from the summit of Shinmoedake and its gradual cooling (figure 39). The MODVOLC thermal alert signals also closely match the reports of the eruption of the lava. The first six alerts were issued on 6 March, four each on 9 and 10 March, three each on 11 and 12 March, and one each on 13, 14, 16, 23, and 30 March, matching a gradual cooling pattern for the lava after the main eruptive event.

Figure 39. A strong MIROVA thermal anomaly signal appeared at Kirishimayama at the beginning of March and slowly tapered off into April 2018. The signal is consistent with the reports of the eruption of lava from the summit of Shinmoedake, and its gradual cooling. A thermal image of the lava flow at Shinmoedake from 28 March 2018 (inset) shows significant cooling from two weeks earlier (see figure 36). Courtesy of MIROVA and JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Activity at Shinmoedake during April and May 2018. A new explosion on 5 April 2018 generated a large ash plume that rose 5,000 m above the crater; a small pyroclastic flow traveled 400 m down the SE flank, and ejecta was thrown 1,100 m from the vent (figure 40). The Tokyo VAAC reported an explosion, and an ash plume at 6.7 km altitude drifting E visible in satellite imagery early in the day. A few hours later, the plume was visible at 10.1 km altitude, or more than 8,000 m above the crater. Incandescent tephra was ejected hundreds of meters high, and lightning was observed within the large ash plume (figures 41 and 42). The plume was observed continuously in satellite images for almost 24 hours before dissipating; a significant SO₂ plume was also recorded (figure 43).

Figure 40. Ejecta was thrown 1,100 m from the vent in an explosion at the Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayma on 5 April 2018 (farthest right incandescence). A large ash plume (to the right of the main incandescence) eventually rose to over 8,000 m above the crater. View is to the N from the Inogishi webcam. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 41. An explosion on 5 April 2018 from the Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama sent incandescent ejecta several hundred meters above the crater. Courtesy of Kyodo News via Reuters.

Figure 42. Significant lightning was reported in the large ash plume from the 5 April 2018 explosion at the Shinmoedake summit crater at Kirishimayama. Courtesy of Kyodo News via Reuters.

Figure 43. The OMPS instrument on the Suomi NPP satellite recorded an SO2 plume drifting SE after the 5 April 2018 explosion at the Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayama. Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

A large amount of ashfall was reported in parts of Kobayashi city and Takaharu (15 km E) (figures 44 and 45) on 5 April 2018. Ashfall reports also indicated that a wide area to the N of Shinmoedake including Hitoyoshi City (30 km N), to the NE including Kadogawa Town (95 km NE), and to the E including Miyazaki City (50 km E) were also affected. Another eruption took place the following day, on 6 April, but weather clouds obscured views of the summit. No eruptions were recorded after 6 April for the remainder of the month.

Figure 44. Ashfall was measured and sampled on 5 April 2018 in Kobayashi City (25 km NE) after an explosion with a large ash plume rose from the Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 45. Ashfall covered major roadways and buildings in Takaharu, 15 km E of Kirishimayama, after an explosion from the Shinmoedake crater on 5 April 2018. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

In multiple flyovers, on 19, 20, and 21 April 2018, authorities observed lava continuing to flow down the NW flank (figure 46), along with residual high temperatures in the central part of the lava flow (figure 47). Additionally, fumarolic areas around the fractures on the W slope persisted. By the end of April, the flow on the NW flank of the crater was 150 m long. Seismicity had declined at the end of March, but increased again during the explosive period in early April. Occasional tremors were recorded during 5-14 April. Intermittent spikes of around 100 small earthquakes were also recorded on 14 and 21 April.

Figure 46. The lava flow down the NW flank of Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama was nearly stagnant by 21 April 2018, as seen in this view to the SW taken that same day by the Miyazaki Prefecture Disaster Preparedness Emergency Air Corps. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 47. Residual high heat flow was still visible near the center of the Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayama on 21 April 2018 but the lava flow had cooled significantly since March (compare with figure 36). Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Another spike in earthquakes with epicenters within 2 km of Shinmoedake occurred on 2 May 2018 with over 700 events recorded. A substantial explosion on 14 May generated an ash plume that rose 4.5 km above the crater according JMA (figure 48). The Tokyo VAAC reported the ash plume initially at 4.9 km altitude drifting SE based on webcam reports; when the plume appeared in satellite data a short time later it was drifting SE at 7.3 km altitude and was continuously visible in satellite imagery for about 24 hours before dissipating. Ashfall was confirmed in numerous areas of the Miyazaki prefecture to the E, and the Kagoshima prefecture to the S and W. Seismicity increased briefly after the explosion. Enough ash fell in Miyakonojo City (30 km S) that it covered the white lines on the roadways (figure 49). A thermal image taken on 15 May showed a new high-heat flow area on the E side of the new lava flow inside the crater that JMA concluded was likely the result of the explosive event of the previous day (figure 50).

Figure 48. A large explosion at the Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayama on 14 May 2018 sent an ash plume to 4,500 m above the crater as seen in this view to the NE from the Inogishi webcam. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, May, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 49. Enough ash fell in Miyakonojo City (30 km S) after an explosion at Shinmoedake crater of Kirishimayama on 14 May 2018, that it covered the white lines on the roadways. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, May, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 50. The thermal signature at Shinmoedake crater at Kirishimayama on 15 May 2018 revealed a high-heat flow area that JMA concluded likely resulted from the explosion the previous day. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, May, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Activity at Iwo-yama during 2014-2017. An increase in seismicity around Iwo-yama, on the NW flank of the Karakunidake stratovolcano (figure 22) beginning in December 2013 was noted by JMA. The epicenters were distributed from 1-6 km below Iwo-yama. Satellite measurements suggested minor inflation in the area around Karakunidake beginning in December 2013, which lasted until January 2015. A 7-minute-long tremor event occurred near Iwo-yama on 20 August 2014. Although inspections of the area by JMA revealed no thermal or fumarolic activity, they listed the Iwo-yama area with an unofficial Alert Level of "Danger around the crater" on 24 October 2014, equivalent to the official Alert Level 2. They modified the warning during May 2015 to "Normal, keep in mind, it is an active volcano," the same as the official Alert Level 1. During the second half of 2015 there were occasional earthquakes and tremors reported in the area, but no surface or thermal activity was recorded (figure 51) until December. Thermal anomalies appeared in the area for the first time during the first week of December 2015; weak fumarolic activity accompanied by H₂S odors were first reported during 15-17 December 2015 on the SW side of the Iwo-yama crater (figure 52).

Figure 51. No surface activity, and very little thermal activity was present at the Iwo-yama (Ebino Kogen) area of Kirishimayama on 2 November 2015. View is to the N, taken from the N flank of Karakunidake. Courtesy of JMA (JMA Kirishimayama annual report, Heisei 27 (2015)).

Figure 52. Steam plumes and a thermal anomaly at the Iwo-yama area of Kirishimayama first appeared during December 2015 (images from 28 December 2015, view to the S). Courtesy of JMA (JMA Kirishimayama annual report, Heisei 27 (2015)).

Periods of intermittent microtremor activity occurred once in January, four times in February, and twice in December during 2016, with durations ranging from 40 seconds to 5 minutes. A seismic swarm on 28 February led JMA to raise the unofficial Alert Level to "danger around the crater" for the month of March (equivalent to the official Alert Level 2). A new thermal area with fumarolic activity appeared on 24 March 2016 on the SE side of the crater. Intermittent steam plumes were observed throughout 2016; the highest rose 200 m on 11 October. Thermal anomalies also persisted throughout the year on the S and SW areas of the crater. Alert Level 1 (Note that it is an active volcano) was formally assigned to Iwo-yama on 6 December 2016. The Alert Level was raised to 2 on 12 December after a seismic swarm, tremor, and the observation of inflation in the inclination data in the previous days.

Fumarolic activity decreased in January 2017 after a brief increase at the end of December 2016; JMA lowered the Alert Level back to 1 on 13 January and steam plumes generally rose only 30 m high during the month. The thermal anomalies persisted in the same areas of the SW and W portions of the crater as before, though new fumarolic activity appeared in those areas during February 2017. During March field surveys, observers identified hot water emerging from the fumaroles in the SW and S areas of the crater. The inclinometer detected inflation beginning on 25 April 2017, but it leveled off during August. An increase in the number of fumaroles in the area of the thermal anomaly at the SW side of the crater was confirmed by a JMA field inspection in late April. When the University of Tokyo Earthquake Research Institute visited the site on 8 May 2017, they observed sediment-laden water deposits that had been dispersed on the SW side within the crater, and ejecta around the SW edge. This led JMA to increase the Alert Level to 2.

Fumarolic activity increased during mid-to-late July 2017 and steam plumes were reported at 300 m above the crater for a brief period. On 27 July visitors confirmed dead and discolored plants on the NE side of the crater, and audible fumarolic activity. A new thermal anomaly zone with fumaroles was visible on the SW flank outside the crater during a site visit on 31 August. Low levels of seismicity were intermittent throughout 2017, but no tremor events were recorded. A large amplitude earthquake with its epicenter under Iwo-yama occurred on 5 September 2017; no sudden changes were observed at the site a few days later, although thermal images taken on 9 September revealed an increase in temperature from two years prior (figure 53, compared with figure 52). JMA lowered the warning level to 1 at the end of October. During November and December 2017, steam plumes generally rose 100-200 m above the crater.

Figure 53. Steam plumes and a thermal anomaly persisted into September 2017 at the Iwo-yama crater of Kirishimayama. Emissions of the plume on the left were audible during the July visit. Compare with the lower temperatures measured in December 2015, figure 52. Image taken on 9 September 2017 from the Iwomayama South webcam on the S side of the area. Courtesy of JMA (JMA Kirishimayama annual report, Heisei 29 (2017)).

Activity at Iwo-yama during January-May 2018. An analysis of nearby hot-spring waters indicated a significant jump in Cl/SO₄ ratios characteristic of high-temperature volcanic gas beginning in November 2017. The first tremor since 12 December 2016 was recorded on 19 January 2018 and coincided with a brief period of inflation in the vicinity of Iwo-yama. Regional inflation of the area had begun again in July 2017 and continued into 2018. Low-frequency, small-amplitude earthquakes were intermittent during January 2018 and steam plumes rose 100-200 m. Increases in seismicity, fumarolic activity, and the temperatures of the thermal anomalies during mid-February 2018 prompted JMA to raise the Alert Level on 20 February 2018 at Iwo-yama to 2. Steam plume heights increased to 200-300 m after 20 February. Seismicity decreased during March 2018, however observations from the webcam revealed an increase in fumarolic and thermal activity (figure 54).

Figure 54. Fumarolic activity and heatflow increased at the Iwo-yama crater of Kirishimayama during March 2018, with steam plumes at the central vent rising several hundred meters. Images taken on 23 March 2018. View is to the N from the Iwo-yama south webcam. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, March, Heisei 30 (2018)).

The infrared imaging webcam recorded a burst of heat from a vent on the SW side of the crater on 7 April; the amplitude of seismic vibrations also increased. A field visit on 9 April revealed a hot water pool several meters in diameter on the SW side of the crater with sediment-laden water flowing from it and a 10-m-high steam plume. Local inflation recorded at Iwo-yama turned to deflation on 19 April; large-amplitude earthquakes were also reported. A tremor that day was followed by an explosion a few minutes later from a new vent on the S side of Iwo-yama. The plume rose 500 m and ejecta was scattered 200-300 m from the vent to the SE. During an overflight on 19 April JMA noted ash deposits around the vent; ash emission from the vent continued until the following morning (figure 55). The Tokyo VAAC reported a small ash emission on 19 April from Kirishimayama that rose to 1.8 km altitude and drifted E, but it was not visible in satellite imagery. On the evening of 20 April, another new vent with a vigorous steam plume appeared 500 m W of Iwo-yama (figure 56). Sediment-laden water was observed around the vent the following day. Increased seismicity at Iwo-yama lasted for about 20 days; additional tremor activity was reported on 20 and 24 April.

Figure 55. An explosion sent steam and ash 500 m high, and ejecta 200-300 m SE from a new vent on the S side of Iwo-yama on 19 April 2018 at Kirishimayama. Ash emission continued until the following morning. N is to the left, fresh ash deposits cover the area SE of the new vent (upper right). Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 56. A new fumarole with a vigorous steam plume appeared about 500 m W of Iwo-yama during the evening of 20 April 2018. N is to the left. Miyazaki Prefecture Disaster Preparedness Emergency Air Corps Photograph taken from a helicopter on 21 April 2018. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

A brief explosion that lasted about ten minutes occurred from this new vent around 1815 on 26 April 2018 sending a plume of ash about 200 m above the vent (figure 57). A small ash emission from Kirishimayama was reported by the Tokyo VAAC on 26 April that rose to 1.5 km altitude. In a site visit on 30 April, JMA noted active fumaroles and small explosions around both vent areas (figure 58). After the explosion of 19 April, steam plumes rose as high as 700 m from the vent on the S side of the crater, and intermittent spouts a few meters high of sediment-laden water were also observed. Steam plumes rose as high as 500 m from the vent located 500 m to the W.

Figure 57. An explosion from the new vent located 500 m W of Iwo-yama at Kirishimayama on 26 April 2018 sent ash 200 m above the vent. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Figure 58. Vigorous steam plumes rose from both the S side vent at Iwo-yama (background) and the new vent 500 m W (foreground) on 30 April 2018 at the Kirishimayama complex. North is to the left. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Fumarolic activity continued at Iwo-yama during May 2018, but no new explosions nor ash emissions were reported. Shallow seismic events were intermittent, but significantly decreased from April. No tremors were recorded. JMA lowered the Alert Level on 1 May 2018 from 3 to 2. Steam plumes rose 300-500 m from the vents, and thermal anomalies persisted at the crater and the adjacent new vent to the W throughout the month. Jets of sediment-laden hot water rising several meters continued from the vent on the S side of Iwo-yama (figure 59).

Figure 59. Jets of sediment-laden hot water (gray spout at center) rose several meters from the S vent at Iwo-Yama at Kirishimayama during May 2018. Image taken on 15 May 2018. Courtesy of JMA (Volcanic activity commentary on Kirishimayama, April, Heisei 30 (2018)).

Geologic Background. Kirishimayama is a large group of more than 20 Quaternary volcanoes located north of Kagoshima Bay. The late-Pleistocene to Holocene dominantly andesitic group consists of stratovolcanoes, pyroclastic cones, maars, and underlying shield volcanoes located over an area of 20 x 30 km. The larger stratovolcanoes are scattered throughout the field, with the centrally located Karakunidake being the highest. Onamiike and Miike, the two largest maars, are located SW of Karakunidake and at its far eastern end, respectively. Holocene eruptions have been concentrated along an E-W line of vents from Miike to Ohachi, and at Shinmoedake to the NE. Frequent small-to-moderate explosive eruptions have been recorded since the 8th century.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); NASA Earth Observatory, EOS Project Science Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Geographical Survey Institute, Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, No. 1 North Town, Tsukuba city, Ibaraki Prefecture 305-0811 Japan Tel: 029-864-1111 (Representative) Fax: 029-864-1807 (URL: http://www.gsi.go.jp/index.html); Kyodo News (URL: https://www.kyodonews.jp/english/); Associated Press (URL: http://www.ap.org/ ); Reuters (http://www.reuters.com/).

Langila, one of the most active volcanoes of New Britain (figure 7), has been intermittently ejecting ash since April 2016 (BGVN 42:09). Volcanic ash warnings continue to be issued by the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC). Recent ash plume altitudes (table 5) are in the range of 1.5-2.5 km, but several in mid-April to mid-May 2018 reached up to twice that level. Thermal anomaly data acquired by satellite-based MODIS instruments showed a gradual decrease in power level and occurrence through mid- to late-2017, followed by significantly fewer alerts and anomalies in the first half of 2018. Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO) data indicates the activity during 2017 was primarily located in Crater 2 (northern-most crater).

Figure 7. Satellite imagery showing Langila volcano at the far NW end of New Britain island. The brown color of recent lava flows and other volcanic deposits are easily noticeable compared to green vegetated areas. The volcano is about 9 km due south of the community labeled Poini. Imagery in this view is from sources listed on the image; courtesy of Google Earth.

Table 5. Reported data by Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) on ash plume altitude and drift from Langila based on analyses of satellite imagery and wind model data between 21 June 2017 and 28 May 2018.

MIROVA analysis of thermal anomalies measured by MODIS satellite sensors show a gradual decline of radiative power from early June 2017 to the end of the year (figure 8). Sporadic low-power anomalies occurred in January, April, and May 2018.

Figure 8. Thermal anomalies from MODIS data analyzed by MIROVA, plotted as log radiative power vs time for the year ending 6 June 2018. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Thermal alerts from MODVOLC analyses were concentrated between early June 2017 and late September 2017 (figure 9), with only one pixel being measured in 2018 through early June, that alert being on 5 January 2018.

Figure 9. Map showing thermal anomalies from MODIS data analyzed by MODVOLC for the year ending 6 June 2018. Courtesy of HIGP - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.

Geologic Background. Langila, one of the most active volcanoes of New Britain, consists of a group of four small overlapping composite basaltic-andesitic cones on the lower E flank of the extinct Talawe volcano in the Cape Gloucester area of NW New Britain. A rectangular, 2.5-km-long crater is breached widely to the SE; Langila was constructed NE of the breached crater of Talawe. An extensive lava field reaches the coast on the N and NE sides of Langila. Frequent mild-to-moderate explosive eruptions, sometimes accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded since the 19th century from three active craters at the summit. The youngest and smallest crater (no. 3 crater) was formed in 1960 and has a diameter of 150 m.

Information Contacts: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), Bureau of Meteorology, Northern Territory Regional Office, PO Box 40050, Casuarina, NT 0811, Australia (URL: http://www.bom.gov.au/info/vaac/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO), Geohazards Management Division, Department of Mineral Policy and Geohazards Management (DMPGM), PO Box 3386, Kokopo, East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea.

The Marapi volcano on Sumatra (not to be confused with the better known Merapi volcano on Java) previously erupted on 4 June 2017, generating dense ash-and-steam plumes that rose as high as 700 m above the crater and caused minor ashfall in a nearby district (BGVN 42:10). The volcano is monitored by the Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Centre for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation or CVGHM).

On 27 April 2018, a phreatic explosion produced an ash plume that rose 300 m above the crater rim (figure 8); a thin ash deposit was reported in the Cubadak area (Tanah Datar Regency), about 12 km SE. Another explosion at 0703 on 2 May 2018 (figure 9) produced a voluminous dense gray ash plume that rose 4 km above the crater rim and drifted SE; seismic data recorded by PVMBG indicated that the event lasted just over 8 minutes (485 seconds).

The Alert Level has remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-4), where it has been since August 2011. Residents and visitors have been advised not to enter an area within 3 km of the summit.

Figure 8. Ash plume from a phreatic explosion at Marapi on 27 April 2018. Courtesy of Sutopo Purwo Nugroho (BNPB).

Figure 9. An explosion from Marapi on 2 May 2018 sent an ash plume to a height of 4 km. Courtesy of PVMBG.

Geologic Background. Gunung Marapi, not to be confused with the better-known Merapi volcano on Java, is Sumatra's most active volcano. This massive complex stratovolcano rises 2,000 m above the Bukittinggi Plain in the Padang Highlands. A broad summit contains multiple partially overlapping summit craters constructed within the small 1.4-km-wide Bancah caldera. The summit craters are located along an ENE-WSW line, with volcanism migrating to the west. More than 50 eruptions, typically consisting of small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been recorded since the end of the 18th century; no lava flows outside the summit craters have been reported in historical time.

Information Contacts: Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG, also known as Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, CVGHM), Jalan Diponegoro 57, Bandung 40122, Indonesia (URL: http://www.vsi.esdm.go.id/); Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), National Disaster Management Agency, Graha BNPB - Jl. Scout Kav.38, East Jakarta 13120, Indonesia (URL: http://www.bnpb.go.id/).

Nicaragua's Volcan Masaya has an intermittent lava lake that has attracted visitors since the time of the Spanish Conquistadores; tephrochronology has dated eruptions back several thousand years. The unusual basaltic caldera has had historical explosive eruptions in addition to lava flows and actively circulating magma at the lava lake. An explosion in 2012 ejected ash to several hundred meters above the volcano, bombs as large as 60 cm fell around the crater, and ash fell to a thickness of 2 mm in some areas of the park. Brief incandescence and thermal anomalies of uncertain origin in April 2013 were followed by very little activity until the reemergence of the lava lake inside Santiago crater was reported in December 2015. By late March 2016 the lava lake had grown and intensified enough to generate a significant thermal anomaly signature (BGVN 41:08, figure 49) which persisted at a constant power level through April 2017 (BGVN 42:09, figure 53) with an increase in the number of thermal anomalies from November 2016 through April 2017. Although the MIROVA thermal anomaly signal decreased slightly in intensity during May 2017, INETER scientists reported continued strong convection at the lava lake. Similar activity continued throughout July 2017-April 2018 and is covered in this report with information provided by the Instituto Nicareguense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER) and satellite thermal data.

A persistent thermal signature in the MIROVA data during July 2017-April 2018 supported the visual observations of the active lava lake at the summit throughout this period (figure 58). MODVOLC thermal alerts were also issued every month, with the number of alerts ranging from a high of 17 in November 2017 to a low of six in April 2018.

Figure 58. MIROVA thermal data for Masaya for the year ending on 11 May 2018 showed a persistent and steady level of heat flow consistent with the observations of the active lava lake inside Santiago crater. Courtesy of MIROVA.

INETER made regular visits to the summit most months in coordination with specialists from several universities to gather SO₂ data; CO₂, H₂S and gravity measurements were also taken during specific site visits. Thermal measurements around the lava lake inside Santiago crater taken on 24 February 2018 indicated temperatures ranging from 210-389°C. Seismicity remained very low throughout the period. The lava lake was actively convecting each time it was visited, and Pele's hair was abundant around the summit area (figures 59-64).

Figure 59. The lava lake at Masaya was actively convecting on 22 August 2017 when observed by INETER scientists. Courtesy of INETER (Boletín Sismos y Volcanes de Nicaragua. Agosto, 2017).

Figure 60. Pele's hair near the summit of Masaya on 22 August 2017. Scale is likely a few tens of centimeters. Courtesy of INETER (Boletín Sismos y Volcanes de Nicaragua. Agosto, 2017).

Figure 61. The summit crater (Santiago) of Masaya with an active lava lake and fumarole plume (white circle) during 8-16 January 2018. Courtesy of INETER (Boletín Sismos y Volcanes de Nicaragua. Enero, 2018).

Figure 62. Thermal measurements of the lava lake inside Santiago crater at the summit of Masaya on 24 February 2018 indicated temperatures in the 210-389°C range. Courtesy of INETER (Boletín Sismos y Volcanes de Nicaragua. Febrero, 2018).

Figure 63. Nindiri plateau, the broad, flat area inside the summit crater of Masaya, was covered with Pele's hair and basaltic tephra on 6 March 2018. Courtesy of Carsten ten Brink.

Figure 64. The lava lake inside Santiago crater at Masaya was actively convecting on 1 April 2018. Courtesy of Alexander Schimmeck.

Geologic Background. Masaya is one of Nicaragua's most unusual and most active volcanoes. It lies within the massive Pleistocene Las Sierras caldera and is itself a broad, 6 x 11 km basaltic caldera with steep-sided walls up to 300 m high. The caldera is filled on its NW end by more than a dozen vents that erupted along a circular, 4-km-diameter fracture system. The Nindirí and Masaya cones, the source of historical eruptions, were constructed at the southern end of the fracture system and contain multiple summit craters, including the currently active Santiago crater. A major basaltic Plinian tephra erupted from Masaya about 6,500 years ago. Historical lava flows cover much of the caldera floor and there is a lake at the far eastern end. A lava flow from the 1670 eruption overtopped the north caldera rim. Masaya has been frequently active since the time of the Spanish Conquistadors, when an active lava lake prompted attempts to extract the volcano's molten "gold." Periods of long-term vigorous gas emission at roughly quarter-century intervals have caused health hazards and crop damage.

Information Contacts: Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), Apartado Postal 2110, Managua, Nicaragua (URL: http://www.ineter.gob.ni/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); Alexander Schimmeck, flickr (URL: https://www.flickr.com/photos/alschim/), photo used under Creative Commons license Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) (URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/); Carsten ten Brink, flickr (URL: https://www.flickr.com/photos/carsten_tb/), photo used under Creative Commons license Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) (URL: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/).

As has been the case since at least 1971, the active lava lake in the summit crater of Nyiragongo was present during a tourist visit in June 2017, and seismicity was recorded in the crater in October 2017 (BGVN 42:11). Thermal data from satellite-based instruments shows that an open lava lake remained through 23 May 2018. MIROVA analysis of MODIS satellite thermal data (figure 64) shows nearly daily strong thermal anomalies. Similarly, MODVOLC alerts for the same time period shows a consistently frequent number of anomalies (figure 65).

Figure 64. Thermal anomaly MIROVA plot of log radiative power at Nyiragongo for the year ending 23 May 2018. Courtesy of MIROVA.

Figure 65. Map showing MODVOLC alert pixels at Nyiragongo, reflecting MODIS satellite thermal data, for the year ending 23 May 2018. Each pixel shows a thermal alert for a ground area of about 1.5 km2. Nyiragongo (many pixels) is in the center of the map, and Nyamuragira volcano (fewer pixels) is about 13 km to the NNW. Courtesy of HIGP - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System.

Geologic Background. One of Africa's most notable volcanoes, Nyiragongo contained a lava lake in its deep summit crater that was active for half a century before draining catastrophically through its outer flanks in 1977. The steep slopes of a stratovolcano contrast to the low profile of its neighboring shield volcano, Nyamuragira. Benches in the steep-walled, 1.2-km-wide summit crater mark levels of former lava lakes, which have been observed since the late-19th century. Two older stratovolcanoes, Baruta and Shaheru, are partially overlapped by Nyiragongo on the north and south. About 100 parasitic cones are located primarily along radial fissures south of Shaheru, east of the summit, and along a NE-SW zone extending as far as Lake Kivu. Many cones are buried by voluminous lava flows that extend long distances down the flanks, which is characterized by the eruption of foiditic rocks. The extremely fluid 1977 lava flows caused many fatalities, as did lava flows that inundated portions of the major city of Goma in January 2002.

Information Contacts: Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/).

Although tephrochronology has dated activity at Sabancaya back several thousand years, renewed activity that began in 1986 was the first recorded in over 200 years. Intermittent activity since then has produced significant ashfall deposits, seismic unrest, and fumarolic emissions. A renewed period of explosive activity began in early November 2016 and continued through 2017. It was characterized by continuing pulses of ash emissions with plume heights exceeding 10 km altitude, thermal anomalies, and numerous significant SO₂ plumes (BGVN 42:12). Details of the continuing eruptive activity from December 2017 to May 2018 in this report come from the two Peruvian observatories that monitor the volcano: Instituto Geofisico del Peru - Observatoria Vulcanologico del Sur (IGP-OVS), and Observatorio Volcanologico del INGEMMET (Instituto Geológical Minero y Metalúrgico) (OVI-INGEMMET). Aviation notices come from the Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), and satellite data is reported from several sources.

Sabancaya continued with its explosive eruption that began on 6 November 2016 during December 2017-May 2018. Around 100 aviation notices were issued each month by the Buenos Aires VAAC; tens of daily explosions were reported, fluctuating from highs in the 60s per day in December 2017 to lows in the teens per day during February-April 2018. Ash plumes heights varied at 3-5 km above the summit; altitudes mentioned in the VAAC reports were between 7.3 and 8.5 km altitude most days, although plume heights over 9.1 km were observed a number of times. MIROVA thermal anomalies were recorded every week; MODVOLC thermal alerts occurred every month. A significant number of SO₂ anomalies greater than two Dobson Units were measured by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center each month (table 2).

Table 2. Eruptive Activity at Sabancaya, December 2017-May 2018. Compiled using data from IGP-OVS, OVI-INGEMMET, Buenos Aires VAAC, HIGP - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

Activity during December 2017-February 2018. The Buenos Aires VAAC issued 120 aviation alerts during December 2017; webcam and satellite imagery revealed continuous emissions of water vapor and gas, accompanied by sporadic puffs of ash, throughout the month. When visible in satellite imagery, plumes rose to 7.3-8.2 km altitude (figure 46); a few plumes were reported to 9.1 km altitude. According to OVI-INGEMMET, about 1,800 explosions took place in December. During the third week, ashfall was reported in Huambo (28 km WNW). There were two MODVOLC thermal alerts issued, on 3 and 10 December.

Figure 46. Webcam photo of an ash plume at Sabancaya on 16 December 2017. The Buenos Aires VAAC reported a plume that day to 8.2 km altitude. Courtesy of OVI-INGEMMET (RSSAB-51-2017/OVI-INGEMMET & IGP Semana del 11 al 17 de diciembre de 2017).

The number of explosions reported by OVI-INGEMMET dropped slightly to about 1,400 during January 2018. The number of VAAC reports was similar to December; when weather clouds prevented observations of emissions, seismic activity showed intermittent peaks that suggested puffs of ash. Plume descriptions by the Buenos Aires VAAC ranged from intermittent plumes that rose to 7.0-7.6 km altitude early in the month to persistent puffs of ash that rose to 7.9-8.2 km altitude during the last two weeks of January. The prevailing winds were directed SW and NW, and ash plumes often drifted as far as 50 km. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center recorded at least 13 days with SO₂ emissions greater than two Dobson Units (DU) (figure 47). HIGP issued two MODVOLC thermal alerts on 4 and 20 January.

Figure 47. SO2 emissions at Sabancaya were significant throughout the report period. Most months, NASA-GSFC measured 10 or more days where the Dobson Unit (DU) values exceeded two. Dobson Units are a measure of the molecular density of SO2 in the atmosphere. The larger plumes shown here are from 6 January 2018 (top left), 23 February 2018 (top right), 18 March 2018 (bottom left), and 28 April 2018 (bottom right). Courtesy of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

OVI-INGEMMET reported ash plume heights during February 2018 at 2,500-4,500 m above the summit. They also noted that deflation was measured during the middle two weeks of the month. The number of daily explosions decreased significantly from the previous few months, with about 500 total explosions recorded in February. The Buenos Aires VAAC noted that the webcam showed continuous emissions of gases with sporadic puffs of ash every day that the summit was visible. Ash plumes were only visible in satellite imagery a few times during the month; during 8-10 February, intermittent emissions were seen moving SE between 7.9 and 8.5 km altitude. During 17-24 February, weak, thin ash plumes drifted several different directions at 7.3-7.9 km altitude (figure 48), and on 28 February a plume was visible drifting NW at 7.6 km altitude. Only a single MODVOLC thermal alert was issued on 18 February.

Figure 48. A strong pulse of ash rose from the summit of Sabancaya early in the morning of 21 February 2018. Courtesy of OVI-INGEMMET (RSSAB-08-2018/OVI-INGEMMET & IGP Semana del 19 al 25 de febrero de 2018).

Activity during March-May 2018. Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued in March 2018, two on 14 March and one on 27 March. Sporadic ash explosions continued, but with the lowest number per day of the reporting period. About 450 explosions were recorded during March. In spite of the smaller number of explosions, some of the tallest ash plumes of the period occurred this month. The Buenos Aires VAAC reported a diffuse ash plume drifting NW in satellite imagery on 2 March at 8.8 km altitude. The following week, several ash plumes were spotted in satellite imagery at altitudes of 7.3-8.2 km drifting either SW or NW. On 11 March, cloudy weather prevented visual satellite imagery observations, but multispectral imagery and the webcam revealed intermittent pulses of ash moving SW at 7.6 km altitude. The following day sporadic strong pulses of ash were observed in the webcam, and there was a pilot report of an ash plume at 9.1 km altitude. During the second half of March, ash plumes were noted in satellite imagery most days at altitudes of 6.4-8.2 km; a few pulses produced short-lived ash plumes that rose over 9.1 km, including on 14, 22, 24, and during 27-30 March (figure 49). The highest plume was observed in visible imagery drifting E on 28 March at 10.1 km altitude. A lahar was also reported on 28 March descending the SE flank, towards the Sallalli River; no damage was reported.

Figure 49. An ash plume at Sabancaya on 30 March 2018 can be seen rising from the summit and above the meteorological cloud in this webcam image. The Buenos Aires VAAC reported ash plumes on 30 March that rose to 9.1 and 9.5 km and drifted NE. Courtesy of OVI-INGEMMET (RSSAB-13-2018/OVI-INGEMMET & IGP Semana del 26 de marzo al 01 de abril de 2018).

The number of explosions during April 2018 increased slightly from March to about 540. The maximum plume heights ranged from 2,000 to 3,200 m above the summit according to OVI-INGEMMET. The webcam showed continuous emissions of water vapor and gas and sporadic pulses of ash throughout the month. Ashfall was reported during the first week in Achoma (23 km NE), Chivay (33 km NE), and Huanca. During the second week, the prevailing winds brought ashfall to the W and NW to Huambo (28 km W) and Cabanaconde (22 km NW). The Buenos Aires VAAC reported faint ash plumes visible in satellite imagery nearly every day; plume heights consistently ranged from 7.0 to 8.2 km altitude. Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued during the month, one on 13 April and two on 17 April.

Activity increased in many ways during May 2018. The Buenos Aires VAAC issued 132 aviation alerts, the most of any month during the period. The numbers of daily explosions increased compared to April, resulting in a monthly total of around 900. OVI-INGEMMET reported plume heights up to 4,300 m above the summit. MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued on 8, 19, 24, and 26 May. In addition to ash plumes visible in satellite imagery every day at altitudes of 7.3-8.2 km altitude (figure 50), a significant number of ash plumes were reported to altitudes greater than 9.1 km during the month, resulting in more VONA's (Volcanic Observatory Notice to Aviation) issued than in previous months. Sporadic strong puffs of ash were observed in the webcam on the days that satellite imagery measurements of ash plume heights exceeded 9.1 km including on 4, 5, 10, 14, 19, 21, 22, 25, 28, and 31 May. The highest plumes reached 10.4 km altitude on 19 May and 10.1 km altitude on 25 May. Hotspots were also reported on 20, 24, and 27 May. As in previous months, the webcam showed constant emissions of steam and gas, with intermittent pulses of volcanic ash throughout the month.

Figure 50. An IGP webcam at Sabancaya recorded the plume height above the summit at 2,800 m on 27 May 2018. Courtesy of OVI-INGEMMET (RSSAB-22-2018/OVI-INGEMMET & IGP Semana del 28 de mayo al 3 de junio del 2018).

Geologic Background. Sabancaya, located in the saddle NE of Ampato and SE of Hualca Hualca volcanoes, is the youngest of these volcanic centers and the only one to have erupted in historical time. The oldest of the three, Nevado Hualca Hualca, is of probable late-Pliocene to early Pleistocene age. The name Sabancaya (meaning "tongue of fire" in the Quechua language) first appeared in records in 1595 CE, suggesting activity prior to that date. Holocene activity has consisted of Plinian eruptions followed by emission of voluminous andesitic and dacitic lava flows, which form an extensive apron around the volcano on all sides but the south. Records of historical eruptions date back to 1750.

Information Contacts: Observatorio Volcanologico del INGEMMET, (Instituto Geológical Minero y Metalúrgico), Barrio Magisterial Nro. 2 B-16 Umacollo - Yanahuara Arequipa, Peru (URL: http://ovi.ingemmet.gob.pe); Instituto Geofisico del Peru, Observatoria Vulcanologico del Sur (IGP-OVS), Arequipa Regional Office, Urb La Marina B-19, Cayma, Arequipa, Peru (URL: http://ovs.igp.gob.pe/); Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Servicio Meteorológico Nacional-Fuerza Aérea Argentina, 25 de mayo 658, Buenos Aires, Argentina (URL: http://www.smn.gov.ar/vaac/buenosaires/inicio.php); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page, Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/).

Activity at the San Cristobal volcano complex during 2017 was characterized by numerous weak ash-and-gas explosions, a succession of strong ash-and-gas explosion on 18 August, and thousands of degassing events (BGVN 43:03). This report covers January through July 2018.

According to the Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), at 1320 on 22 April a moderate explosion generated an ash-and-gas plume that rose 500-800 m (figure 38), causing ashfall in the Comarca La Bolsa (8 km SW) and Hacienda Las Rojas (3 km WSW) and Loma Las Brujas (2 km W).

Figure 38. Photo of the gas-and-ash explosion at San Cristobal on 22 April 2018.  Courtesy of Fausto Tijerino, INETER (Boletín mensual, Sismos y Volcanes de Nicaragua, Abril, 2018).

INETER's April bulletin reported that the monthly averages of sulfur dioxide levels at San Cristobal during January through March 2018 ranged from 305-449 metric tons per day. On 22 April, the day of the explosion, levels reached 1903 tons. During the reporting period, MODIS satellite instruments using the MODVOLC algorithm recorded only two questionable thermal anomalies at San Cristobal. The MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) volcano hotspot detection system, also based on analysis of MODIS data, recorded numerous hotspots, but only one within 5 km of the volcano during January through July 2018. The latter one occurred during late March.

Geologic Background. The San Cristóbal volcanic complex, consisting of five principal volcanic edifices, forms the NW end of the Marrabios Range. The symmetrical 1745-m-high youngest cone, named San Cristóbal (also known as El Viejo), is Nicaragua's highest volcano and is capped by a 500 x 600 m wide crater. El Chonco, with several flank lava domes, is located 4 km W of San Cristóbal; it and the eroded Moyotepe volcano, 4 km NE of San Cristóbal, are of Pleistocene age. Volcán Casita, containing an elongated summit crater, lies immediately east of San Cristóbal and was the site of a catastrophic landslide and lahar in 1998. The Plio-Pleistocene La Pelona caldera is located at the eastern end of the complex. Historical eruptions from San Cristóbal, consisting of small-to-moderate explosive activity, have been reported since the 16th century. Some other 16th-century eruptions attributed to Casita volcano are uncertain and may pertain to other Marrabios Range volcanoes.

Information Contacts: Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (INETER), Apartado Postal 2110, Managua, Nicaragua (URL: http://webserver2.ineter.gob.ni/vol/dep-vol.html); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity), a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/).

El Salvador's San Miguel, also known as Chaparrastique, had six small ash emission events during January 2015-June 2017 (BGVN 42:07). New activity consisting of intermittent ash emissions began on 14 January and continued until 30 May 2018, reported below based on information provided by El Salvador's Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (SNET) and special reports from the Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN).

SNET and MARN reported that during 14-17 January 2018 there were four gas-and-ash emissions from San Miguel that rose no higher than 300 m above the crater rim, at least one of which dispersed SW. The reports noted that prior to each emission seismicity decreased and then suddenly increased. MARN reported that during 25-26 January seismic tremor levels fluctuated between 75 and 179 RSAM (Real-time Seismic Amplitude Measurement) units per hour on average, slightly above normal (50-150 units).

On 19 February, MARN reported the beginning of sustained gas emissions along with small ash emissions. The plume did not exceed 350 m above and was displaced by winds to the SW. This activity was similar to the activity on 14-15 January 2018.

SNET reported on 2 March that gas plumes rose as high as 400 m above the crater rim during the previous week. Ash appeared in "gas pulse" emissions on 24, 26, and 28 February, and 1 March. RSAM values fluctuated between 70 and 179 units during 1-2 March. At 2200 on 5 March seismic amplitude began to increase, with RSAM values rising to as high as 318 units by 0600 on 6 March. A webcam recorded minor gas emission during 5-6 March. MARN reported that RSAM values fluctuated between 68 and 248 units, with an average of 156 during 8-9 March. Continued volcanic tremor during 9-16 March was noted, along with persistent low-level degassing from the central crater. Volcanic tremor levels during 15-16 March fluctuated between 77 and 203 RSAM units per hour, with an average of 124.

By early April, MARN had noted a decrease in activity. On 3 April it reported that RSAM levels varied between 46 and 87 units, with an average of 55. Activity increased briefly during 7-13 April, and MARN reported that periodic microseisms combined with changes in seismic tremor and gas pulses had increased significantly, reaching maximum values of 400 RSAM units in an average hour (figure 25).

Figure 25. RSAM values at San Miguel during 7-13 April 2018. Courtesy of Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN).

Discrete earthquakes were detected between 13 and 17 April, and discontinuous volcanic tremor during 17-18 April was associated with weak, sporadic degassing from the central crater. Seismicity reached maximum values of 216 RSAM units in an average hour.

MARN reported that during 20-27 April volcanic tremor fluctuated between 37 and 106 RSAM units per average hour. Seismicity was low during 28 April-4 May, with RSAM between 39 and 61 units per hour.

In May MARN reported that the volcanic activity had declined compared to April. As of 18 May there was no change in volcanic activity, despite the seismic swarm that started on the night of 5 May felt in the municipalities of Chirilagua-Intipucá, 30 km SE. Average SO₂ emission rates were variable during 1 January-6 May 2018 (figure 26).

Figure 26. Sulfur dioxide emissions at San Miguel between from 1 January-6 May 2018. Courtesy of Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN).

SNET reported a significant increase in the number of low- and high-frequency earthquakes beneath the crater beginning on 22 May. RSAM values fluctuated between 142 and 176 units during 30 May-1 June. Webcam images on 30 May showed a small gray gas emission.

Geologic Background. The symmetrical cone of San Miguel volcano, one of the most active in El Salvador, rises from near sea level to form one of the country's most prominent landmarks. The unvegetated summit rises above slopes draped with coffee plantations. A broad, deep crater complex that has been frequently modified by historical eruptions (recorded since the early 16th century) caps the truncated summit, also known locally as Chaparrastique. Radial fissures on the flanks of the basaltic-andesitic volcano have fed a series of historical lava flows, including several erupted during the 17th-19th centuries that reached beyond the base of the volcano on the N, NE, and SE sides. The SE-flank flows are the largest and form broad, sparsely vegetated lava fields crossed by highways and a railroad skirting the base of the volcano. The location of flank vents has migrated higher on the edifice during historical time, and the most recent activity has consisted of minor ash eruptions from the summit crater.

Information Contacts: Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (SNET), Ministero de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN), Km. 5½ Carretera a Nueva San Salvador, Avenida las Mercedes, San Salvador, El Salvador (URL: http://www.snet.gob.sv/ver/vulcanologia, http://www.marn.gob.sv/category/avisos/vulcanologia/).