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Smithsonian / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report

Weekly Volcanic Activity Map

The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is a cooperative project between the Smithsonian's Global Volcanism Program and the US Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards Program. Updated by 2300 UTC every Wednesday and averaging 16 reported volcanoes, this is not a comprehensive list of all eruptions this week, but rather a summary of activity that meet criteria discussed in the "Criteria and Disclaimers" section below.

Volcanic activity reported here is preliminary and subject to change. Carefully reviewed, detailed narratives over longer time periods are published as reports of the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network available through volcano profile pages.

Smithsonian / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report for the week of 21 January-27 January 2015
Name Country Volcanic Province Eruption Start Date Report Status
Colima Mexico Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt New
Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai Tonga Tofua Volcanic Arc New
Karymsky Russia Eastern Kamchatka Volcanic Arc 2024 Jun 20 New
Klyuchevskoy Russia Eastern Kamchatka Volcanic Arc New
San Miguel El Salvador Central America Volcanic Arc New
Sangay Ecuador Northern Andean Volcanic Arc 2019 Mar 26 New
Soputan Indonesia Sangihe Volcanic Arc New
Aira Japan Ryukyu Volcanic Arc 2017 Mar 25 Continuing
Asosan Japan Nankai Volcanic Arc Continuing
Bagana Papua New Guinea Solomon Volcanic Arc 2000 Feb 28 (in or before) Continuing
Bardarbunga Iceland Iceland Neovolcanic Rift Volcanic Province Continuing
Chirpoi Russia Kuril Volcanic Arc Continuing
Dukono Indonesia Halmahera Volcanic Arc 1933 Aug 13 Continuing
Kilauea United States Hawaiian-Emperor Hotspot Volcano Group Continuing
Sheveluch Russia Eastern Kamchatka Volcanic Arc 1999 Aug 15 Continuing
Shishaldin United States Aleutian Ridge Volcanic Arc Continuing
Sinarka Russia Kuril Volcanic Arc Continuing
Suwanosejima Japan Ryukyu Volcanic Arc 2004 Oct 23 Continuing
Zhupanovsky Russia Eastern Kamchatka Volcanic Arc Continuing
All times are local unless otherwise stated.
Weekly Reports Archive

Since the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report began in November 2000, there have been 20,531 individual reports over 1,239 weeks (average of 17 per week) on 336 different volcanoes.

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Agung Cotopaxi Iliamna Little Sitkin Planchon-Peteroa Stromboli
Ahyi Cuicocha Iliwerung Llaima Poas Sulu Range
Aira Cumbal Inielika Lokon-Empung Popocatepetl Sumbing
Akan Dabbahu Ioto Lonquimay Purace Sumisujima
Alaid Davidof Irazu Lopevi Puyehue-Cordon Caulle Sundoro
Alu-Dalafilla Dempo Iya Machin Rabaul Suoh
Ambae Descabezado Grande Izu-Torishima Makushin Raikoke Suretamatai
Ambang Dieng Volcanic Complex Jackson Segment Maly Semyachik Ranakah Suwanosejima
Ambrym Dukono Kaba Manam Raoul Island Taal
Anatahan East Epi Kadovar Manda Hararo Rasshua Tair, Jebel at
Aniakchak Ebeko Kaitoku Seamount Marapi Raung Takawangha
Antillanca Volcanic Complex Ebulobo Kama'ehuakanaloa Maroa Redoubt Talang
Antuco Edgecumbe Kambalny Martin Reventador Tambora
Apoyeque Egon Kanaga Masaya Reykjanes Tanaga
Arenal Ekarma Kanlaon Matthew Island Rincon de la Vieja Tandikat-Singgalang
Asamayama Eldey Karangetang Maule, Laguna del Rinjani Tangkoko-Duasudara
Askja Erebus Karkar Mauna Loa Ritter Island Tangkuban Parahu
Asosan Erta Ale Karthala Mayon Rotorua Tara, Batu
Atka Volcanic Complex Etna Karymsky McDonald Islands Ruang Ta'u
Augustine Etorofu-Yakeyama [Grozny Group] Kasatochi Melebingoy Ruapehu Taupo
Avachinsky Eyjafjallajokull Katla Melimoyu Ruby Telica
Awu Fagradalsfjall Katmai Merapi Ruiz, Nevado del Tenerife
Axial Seamount Fernandina Kavachi Midagahara Sabancaya Tengger Caldera
Azul, Cerro Fogo Kelimutu Misti, El Sakar Three Sisters
Azumayama Fonualei Kelud Miyakejima Salak Tinakula
Bagana Fournaise, Piton de la Kerinci Momotombo San Cristobal Tofua
Balbi Fourpeaked Ketoi Monowai San Miguel Tokachidake
Bamus Fuego Kharimkotan Montagu Island San Vicente Tolbachik
Banda Api Fujisan Kick 'em Jenny Moyorodake [Medvezhia] Sangay Toliman
Bardarbunga Fukutoku-Oka-no-Ba Kie Besi Mutnovsky Sangeang Api Tongariro
Barren Island Galeras Kikai Myojinsho Santa Ana Trident
Batur Galunggung Kilauea Nabro Santa Maria Tungurahua
Bezymianny Gamalama Kirishimayama Negra, Sierra Sao Jorge Turrialba
Bogoslof Gamkonora Kita-Ioto Negro, Cerro Sarigan Ubinas
Brava Gareloi Kizimen Nightingale Island Sarychev Peak Ugashik-Peulik
Bristol Island Gaua Klyuchevskoy Nishinoshima Saunders Ukinrek Maars
Bulusan Gorely Kolokol Group Nisyros Savo Ulawun
Calbuco Great Sitkin Koryaksky Novarupta Semeru Unnamed
Callaqui Grimsvotn Krakatau NW Rota-1 Semisopochnoi Unnamed
Cameroon Guagua Pichincha Krummel-Garbuna-Welcker Nyamulagira Seulawah Agam Veniaminof
Campi Flegrei Guallatiri Krysuvik-Trolladyngja Nyiragongo Sheveluch Villarrica
Campi Flegrei del Mar di Sicilia Guntur Kuchinoerabujima Ofu-Olosega Shishaldin Vulcano
Cayambe Hachijojima Kurikomayama Okataina Simbo West Mata
Chachadake [Tiatia] Hakoneyama Kusatsu-Shiranesan Okmok Sinabung Westdahl
Chaiten Heard Kverkfjoll Ontakesan Sinarka Whakaari/White Island
Chiginagak Hekla La Palma Oraefajokull Siple Witori
Chikurachki Helgrindur Lamington Osorno Sirung Wolf
Chiles-Cerro Negro Hierro Lamongan Pacaya Slamet Wrangell
Chillan, Nevados de Hokkaido-Komagatake Langila Pagan Snaefellsjokull Yakedake
Chirinkotan Home Reef Lanin Palena Volcanic Group Soputan Yasur
Chirpoi Hood Lascar Paluweh Sorikmarapi Yellowstone
Ciremai Huaynaputina Late Panarea Sotara Yufu-Tsurumi
Cleveland Hudson, Cerro Lateiki Papandayan Soufriere Hills Zaozan [Zaosan]
Colima Huila, Nevado del Lengai, Ol Doinyo Pavlof Soufriere St. Vincent Zavodovski
Colo Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai Leroboleng Pelee South Sarigan Seamount Zhupanovsky
Concepcion Ibu Lewotobi Peuet Sague Spurr Zubair Group
Copahue Ijen Lewotolok Pinatubo St. Helens
 News Feeds and Google Placemarks


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The RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feed is identical to the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report minus some features including the header information (latitude and longitude and summit elevation), the Geologic Summary, and a link to the volcano's page from the Global Volcanism Program. At the end of each report is a list of the sources used. Each volcano report includes a link from the volcano's name back to the more complete information in the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report on the Smithsonian website. This feature was first made available on 5 March 2008.



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A Google Earth network link for the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report can be loaded into the free Google Earth software, and in turn will load placemarks for volcanoes in the current weekly report. Placemark balloons include the volcano name, report date, report text, sources, and links back to the GVP volcano profile page and to the complete Weekly Report for that week. This feature was first made available on 1 April 2009.

 Criteria & Disclaimers

Criteria



The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report does not necessarily include all volcanic activity that occurred on Earth during the week. More than a dozen volcanoes globally have displayed more-or-less continuous eruptive activity for decades or longer, and such routine activity is typically not reported here. Moreover, Earth's sea-floor volcanism is seldom reported even though in theory it represents the single most prolific source of erupted material. The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report summarizes volcanic activity that meets one or more of the following criteria:

- A volcano observatory raises or lowers the alert level at the volcano.
- A volcanic ash advisory has been released by a volcanic ash advisory center (VAAC) stating that an ash cloud has been produced from the volcano.
- A verifiable news report of new activity or a change in activity at the volcano has been issued.
- Observers have reported a significant change in volcanic activity. Such activity can include, but is not restricted to, pyroclastic flows, lahars, lava flows, dome collapse, or increased unrest.

Volcanoes are included in the "New Activity/Unrest" section of the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report if the activity occurs after at least 3 months of quiescence. Once a volcano is included in the "New Activity/Unrest" section, updates will remain in that section unless the activity continues for more than 1 month without escalating, after which time updates will be listed in the "Continuing Activity" section. Volcanoes are also included in the "New Activity/Unrest" section if the volcano is undergoing a period of relatively high unrest, or increasing unrest. This is commonly equal to Alert Level Orange on a scale of Green, Yellow, Orange, Red, where Red is the highest alert. Or alert level 3 on a scale of 1-4 or 1-5.

It is important to note that volcanic activity meeting one or more of these criteria may occur during the week, but may not be included in the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report because we did not receive a report.

Disclaimers



1. The Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is intended to provide timely information about global volcanism on a weekly basis. Consequently, the report is generated rapidly by summarizing volcanic reports from various sources, with little time for fact checking. The accuracy of the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is dependent upon the quality of the volcanic activity reports we receive. Reports published in the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network are cover longer time periods and are more carefully reviewed, although all of the volcanoes discussed in the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report are not necessarily reported in the Bulletin. Because of our emphasis on rapid reporting on the web we have avoided diacritical marks. Reports are updated on the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report web page as they are received, therefore information may be included regarding events that occurred before the current report period.

2. Rapidly developing events lead to coverage that is often fragmentary. Volcanoes, their eruptions, and their plumes and associated atmospheric effects are complex phenomena that may require months to years of data analysis in order to create a comprehensive summary and interpretation of events.

3. Preliminary accounts sometimes contain exaggerations and "false alarms," and accordingly, this report may include some events ultimately found to be erroneous or misleading.

4. Many news agencies do not archive the articles they post on the Internet, and therefore the links to some sources may not be active. To obtain information about the cited articles that are no longer available on the Internet contact the source.

5. USGS Disclaimer Statement for this Website:

Information presented on this website is considered public information and may be distributed or copied. Use of appropriate byline/photo/image credit is requested. We strongly recommend that USGS data be acquired directly from a USGS server and not through other sources that may change the data in some way. While USGS makes every effort to provide accurate and complete information, various data such as names, telephone numbers, etc. may change prior to updating. USGS welcomes suggestions on how to improve our home page and correct errors. USGS provides no warranty, expressed or implied, as to the accuracy, reliability or completeness of furnished data.

Some of the documents on this server may contain live references (or pointers) to information created and maintained by other organizations. Please note that USGS does not control and cannot guarantee the relevance, timeliness, or accuracy of these outside materials.

For site security purposes and to ensure that this service remains available to all users, this government computer system employs software programs to monitor network traffic to identify unauthorized attempts to upload or change information, or otherwise cause damage. Unauthorized attempts to upload information or change information on this website are strictly prohibited and may be punishable under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 and the National Information Infrastructure Protection Act. Information may also be used for authorized law enforcement investigations. (Last modified September 21, 1999.)

U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA
URL: https://volcano.si.edu/reports_weekly.cfm

 Acronyms and Abbreviations

a.s.l. - above sea level

AVO - Alaska Volcano Observatory

AVHRR - Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

CENAPRED - Centro Nacionale de Prevencion de Desastres (México)

CONRED - Coordinadora Nacional para la Reducción de Desastres

COSPEC - Correlation Spectrometer

CVGHM (formerly VSI) - Center of Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation

CVO - Cascades Volcano Observatory (USGS)

GMS - Geostationary Meteorological Satellite

GOES - Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

GVO - Goma Volcano Observatory

GVP - Global Volcanism Program (Smithsonian Institution)

HVO - Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (USGS)

ICE - Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (Costa Rica)

IG - Instituto Geofísico (Ecuador)

IGNS - Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (New Zealand) - now GNS Science

INETER - Instituto Nicaragüense de Estudios Territoriales (Nicaragua)

INGEMMET - Instituto Geológical Minero y Metalúrgico (Peru)

INGEOMINAS - Instituto Colombiano de Geología y Minería (Colombia)

INGV-CT - Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia - Sezione di Catania (Italy)

INSIVUMEH - Instituto Nacional de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Meteorologia e Hidrologia (Guatemala)

IRD - Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (France)

JMA - Japanese Meteorological Agency

KEMSD - Kamchatkan Experimental and Methodical Seismilogical Department

KVERT - Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team

M - magnitude

METEOSAT - Meteorological Satellite

MEVO - Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory

MODIS - Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

MVO - Montserrat Volcano Observatory

MWO - Meteorological Watch Office

NEIC - National Earthquake Information Center

NIED - National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (Japan)

NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOTAM - Notice to Airmen

OVDAS - Observatorio Volcanologico de los Andes del Sur (Chile)

OFDA - Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance

ONEMI - Oficina Nacional de Emergencia - Ministerio del Interior (Chile)

OVPDLF - Observatoire Volcanologique du Piton de la Fournaise (France)

OVSICORI-UNA - Observatorio Vulcanologico y Sismologico de Costa Rica, Universidad Nacional (Costa Rica)

PHIVOLCS - Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (Philippines)

RSAM - Real-time Seismic Amplitude Measurement

RVO - Rabaul Volcano Observatory

SERNAGEOMIN - Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria (Chile)

SIGMET - Significant Meteorological Information

SNET - Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (El Salvador)

SVERT - Sakhalin Volcanic Eruption Response Team (Russia)

USAID - US Agency for International Development

USGS - United States Geological Survey

UTC - Coordinated Universal Time

VAAC - Volcanic Ash Advisory Center

VAFTAD - Volcanic Ash Forecast Transport And Dispersion

VDAP - Volcano Disaster Assistance Program (USGS)

VHP - Volcano Hazards Program (USGS)

VRC - Volcano Research Center (Japan)

Report for Colima
Based on news articles, an explosion at 0713 on 21 January generated an ash plume that rose 4 km and drifted E. Ashfall was reported in Huescalpa (25 km NE), Tuxpan (25 km ENE), Zapotiltic (23 km NE), Vista Hermosa, Atenquique (20 km E), and Mazamitla (78 km NE). On 23 January authorities restricted access to the Parque Nacional Nevado de Colima citing increased activity during the previous days. The next day an ash plume rose 500 m and was followed by another ash plume that rose 700 m. Two ash plumes on 26 January rose as high as 1 km.

In a 24 January bulletin, the Unidad Estatal de Protección Civil reported that Colima remained active, although there was a slight decrease in the number and size of lava-block avalanches. Lava flows were active on the W and WNW flanks, and explosive activity was low to moderate. The recent explosions had partially destroyed the lava dome. Residents were warned not go within 5 km of the volcano.
Sources: Informador, Informador, Informador, Informador, Unidad Estatal de Protección Civil de Colima
Report for Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai
According to a news article from 26 January, the newly-formed island at Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai was about 120 m high, 1.5 km wide (N-S), and 2 km long (W-E). The island was an estimated 1 km in diameter with a crater that was 400-500 m in diameter. It had joined Hunga Ha’apai to the W and was 150-200 m short of joining Hunga Tonga to the N. The article noted that the eruption had decreased during the previous week; there were no longer emissions rising from the vent.
Source: Matangi Tonga Online
Report for Karymsky
KVERT reported that during 16-23 January a moderate eruption at Karymsky continued. Satellite images showed a thermal anomaly over the volcano during 18-22 January, and ash plumes that drifted 65 km E at an altitude of 5 km (16,400 ft) a.s.l. during 19-22 January.
Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT)
Report for Klyuchevskoy
KVERT reported that during 16-23 January a Strombolian and Vulcanian eruption at Klyuchevskoy continued. A lava flow effused onto the SE flank. Incandescence at the summit was visible and bombs were ejected 200-300 m above the crater. Explosions generated ash plumes that rose to altitudes of 6-7 km (19,700-23,000 ft) a.s.l.; ashfall was reported in Klyuchi Village (30 km NNE) on 21 January. Satellite images showed a daily, big, bright thermal anomaly over the volcano, and ash plumes drifting 210 km SW, NW, and NE at altitudes of 5-6 km (16,400-19,700 ft) a.s.l. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange.
Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT)
Report for San Miguel
SNET reported that at 0643 on 26 January a small explosion at San Miguel generated a plume that rose 300 m and quickly dissipated to the W. Local residents reported hearing rumbling and feeling tremor during the explosion. Minor ashfall was reported SW of the crater.
Source: Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (SNET)
Report for Sangay
Based on a pilot observation, the Washington VAAC reported that on 25 January an ash plume from Sangay rose to an altitude of 7.3 km (24,000 ft) a.s.l. Weather clouds prevented satellite image confirmation of the plume, although a thermal anomaly was detected which continued through the next day.
Source: Washington Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)
Report for Soputan
Based on analyses of satellite imagery and wind data, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 21 January an ash plume from Soputan rose to an altitude of 3.7 km (12,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted over 35 km SW.
Source: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC)
Report for Aira
JMA reported that three explosions from Showa Crater at Aira Caldera’s Sakurajima volcano ejected tephra as far as 800 m during 19-23 January. Incandescence from the crater was visible at night on 22 January. Inflation continued to be detected. The Alert Level remained at 3 (on a scale of 1-5). The Tokyo VAAC reported that on 23 January plumes rose to altitudes of 3-4.9 km (10,000-16,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted SE. During 24-27 January plumes rose to altitudes of 1.8-3 km (6,000-10,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted SE, E, NE, and N.
Sources: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)
Report for Asosan
JMA reported that, based on seismicity and infrasound data, the eruption from Asosan’s Nakadake Crater that began on 25 November continued intermittently during 19-26 January. Incandescent material was sometimes ejected onto the crater rim. Plumes rose 1 km on 20 January and 600 m each day during 23-26 January. The Alert Level remained at 2 (on a scale of 1-5).
Source: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)
Report for Bagana
Based on analyses of satellite imagery and wind data, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 21 January ash plumes from Bagana rose to an altitude of 3.7 km (12,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted 22-40 km NE. The next day ash plumes drifted almost 20 km SW.
Source: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC)
Report for Bardarbunga
During 21-27 January, IMO maintained Aviation Colour Code Orange due to continued activity at Bárdarbunga’s Holuhraun eruptive fissure. The lava field expanded along the N and NE margins. Seismicity remained strong and local air pollution from gas emissions persisted. Very high values of sulfur dioxide, about 84,000 µg/m3, were recorded at the eruption site on 21 January; this value was the highest recorded at ground level since the eruption started. Total subsidence of the Bárdarbunga surface since mid-August was 61 m, and the volume of erupted lava was an estimated 1.4 cubic kilometers. The lava field covered 84.7 square kilometers on 22 January. A report issued on 27 January stated that the average rate of lava emission during the previous three weeks was just less than 100 cubic meters per second, therefore the intensity of the eruption was slowly decreasing.
Source: Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO)
Report for Chirpoi
SVERT reported that satellite images over Snow, a volcano of Chirpoi, showed a thermal anomaly during 20-21 and 25 January. Cloud cover obscured views on other days during 19-26 January. The Aviation Color Code remained at Yellow.
Source: Sakhalin Volcanic Eruption Response Team (SVERT)
Report for Dukono
Based on analyses of satellite imagery and wind data, the Darwin VAAC reported that during 21-22 and 26 January ash plumes from Dukono rose to an altitude of 3 km (10,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted 45-55 km S and SW.
Source: Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC)
Report for Kilauea
During 21-27 January HVO reported that Kilauea’s 27 June NE-trending lava flow continued to widen and advance, with breakout lava flows upslope of the leading front. The most northern lobe of lava continued to advance and by 27 January the front was about 500 m above Highway 130, near police and fire stations. At Pu'u 'O'o Crater, glow emanated from several outgassing openings in the crater floor. The circulating lava lake occasionally rose and fell in the deep pit within Halema'uma'u Crater. Gas emissions remained elevated. The plume from the vent continued to deposit variable amounts tephra onto nearby areas.
Source: US Geological Survey Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO)
Report for Sheveluch
KVERT reported that during 16-23 January lava-dome extrusion onto Sheveluch’s N flank was accompanied by incandescence, hot avalanches, and fumarolic activity. Strong explosions during 18-21 January generated ash plumes that rose to altitudes of 6-7 km (19,700-23,000 ft) a.s.l. Satellite images detected ash plumes drifting more than 118 km ENE on 18 January and more than 530 km NE during 21-22 January. A thermal anomaly over the dome was detected daily. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange.
Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT)
Report for Shishaldin
AVO reported that on 21 January webcam images taken in partly cloudy conditions at Shishaldin possibly showed a dusting of fresh ash on the snowy upper flanks. During 21-22 January seismicity continued to be slightly elevated over background levels. Strongly elevated temperatures at the summit detected in overnight satellite images were consistent with possible lava in the crater. Clear webcam views during 23-25 January showed a small steam plume, indicating that the current activity was mostly contained in the deep summit crater. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange and the Volcano Alert Level remained at Watch.
Source: US Geological Survey Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO)
Report for Sinarka
SVERT reported that activity at Sinarka was not detected during January; on 26 January the Aviation Color Code was lowered to Green.
Source: Sakhalin Volcanic Eruption Response Team (SVERT)
Report for Suwanosejima
Based on JMA notices, the Tokyo VAAC reported an explosion from Suwanosejima on 25 January.
Source: Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC)
Report for Zhupanovsky
KVERT reported that a moderate explosive eruption at Zhupanovsky continued during 16-23 January. Satellite images detected a thermal anomaly over the volcano during 17-20 January, and ash plumes drifting 300 km SW and E during 17-21 January. The Aviation Color Code remained at Orange.
Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT)